A Quick Reference
Author: Wolfgang Schulze (IATS, LMU Munich) // © 2007 [third (augmented and corrected) version]
Note: This overview does not
represent a full coverage of Lak. The reader should at any rate refer to the
bibliography given at the end of this presentation. The sections on
morphosyntax and syntax conform to what can be called the ‘typological format’ as used in standard functional descriptions of language. Also note that a number of Lak grammatical categories
are a matter of dispute. The view taken in this presentation does not
necessarily reflect the opinion of others doing research on Lak! All possible
errors are mine!
Comments, suggestions, and corrections please mail to W.Schulze@lrz.uni-muenchen.de
Contents:
2.
Phonology and writing system
6.
Sample text with interlinear glosses
7. Some statistics (phonetics and grammar)
Name: lak:u maz
(лакку маз)
Genetic affiliation:
East Caucasian,
‘old Type’
(see /kaukhist.pdf),
separate branch.
Closer relationship:
Dargi, important isoglosses with Nakh (Chechen, Ingush, Bats)
Number of speakers: ~ 90.000
– 100.000
Written language: Yes
(Cyrillic-based alphabet, see below)
Location: Central
Daghestan:
Towns and villages (in Lak orthography, incomplete list!):
Lakskij Rayon: Кьуба, Чlара, Ккуркли, Кума, Кlунды, Хьараша, Унчукутль, Гъумучи, Хъуна, Хьури, Кубра, Ури, Шовкра,
Щара, Хурхи, Кlулушац, Хулисма, Бурши,
Kkul Rayon: Къани, Вихьли,
Ккули, Хайхи, Цыйши, Ваччи, Кая, Сумбатль, Цlушар, Цlовкра-2, Хосрех, Цlовкра-1
Others: Аракул, Новолакрей, Тухчар, Гамиях, Новочуртах, Дучи, Ахар,
Новокули, Новолакское, Чапаево, Анжи, Каспийск, Щурагь, Москвa…
Grouping:
Sh-dialects
Arakul, Bartkhi,
Shadni, Kumukh, Witskhi, Shali
S-dialects
Wikhli, Pervotsovkri,
Kayali-Mashiki; Wachi-Kuli
Earlier writing traditions:
Arabic (until 1928), Latin (until 1938)
Early sources:
*
Translation of the Muçammad Eulogy al-burda
(by al-Buṣīrī) ~ 1700.
*
Medical book, translation of the Tuxfat
al-mucminīn (al-Djeilemi) (1734), preseved as a copy by
Khadži-Ali from Khanar (1774).
* Lak
version of the Derbend-Name (by Mirza Khaydar, called Verizov) ~ 1800.
[up]
1. Consonants
Transcription / ‘Caucasianists’ Style’
|
Stops |
Affricates |
Spirants |
Nasals |
Approximants |
||||||||
|
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Vd |
Vl |
Gem |
|
|
Bilabial |
b |
p |
p’ |
p: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
m |
w |
Dento-Alveolar |
d |
t |
t’ |
t: |
|
c |
c’ |
c: |
z |
s |
s: |
n |
r / l |
Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
č |
č’ |
č: |
ž |
š |
š: |
|
|
Labio-Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
čʷ |
čʷ’ |
č:ʷ |
žʷ |
šʷ |
š:ʷ |
|
|
Velar |
g |
k |
k’ |
k: |
|
|
|
|
|
x̂ |
x̂: |
|
y |
Labio-Velar |
gʷ |
kʷ |
kʷ’ |
k:ʷ |
|
|
|
|
|
x̂ʷ |
x̂:ʷ |
|
|
Uvular |
|
q |
q’ |
q: |
|
|
|
|
ğ |
x |
x: |
|
|
Labio-Uvular |
|
qʷ |
qʷ’ |
q:ʷ |
|
|
|
|
ğʷ |
xʷ |
x:ʷ |
|
|
Pharyngeal |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ħ |
|
|
|
Laryngeal |
|
|
’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
h |
|
|
|
Transcription / IPA
|
Stops |
Affricates |
Spirants |
Nasals |
Approximants |
||||||||
|
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Vd |
Vl |
Gem |
|
|
Bilabial |
b |
p |
p’ |
p: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
m |
w ~ B |
Dento-Alveolar |
d |
t |
t’ |
t: |
|
ts |
ts’ |
ts: |
z |
s |
s: |
n |
r / l |
Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
tʃ |
tʃ' |
tʃ: |
ʒ |
ʃ |
ʃ: |
|
|
Labio-Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
tʃʷ |
tʃʷ’ |
tʃ:ʷ |
ʒʷ |
ʃʷ |
ʃ:ʷ |
|
|
Velar |
g |
k |
k’ |
k: |
|
|
|
|
|
x |
x: |
|
j |
Labio-Velar |
gʷ |
kʷ |
kʷ’ |
k:ʷ |
|
|
|
|
|
xʷ |
x:ʷ |
|
|
Uvular |
|
q |
q’ |
q: |
|
|
|
|
ʁ |
χ |
χ: |
|
|
Labio-Uvular |
|
qʷ |
qʷ’ |
q:ʷ |
|
|
|
|
ʁW |
χʷ |
χ:ʷ |
|
|
Pharyngeal |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ħ |
|
|
|
Laryngeal |
|
|
ʕ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
h |
|
|
|
Writing System
|
Stops |
Affricates |
Spirants |
Nasals |
Approximants |
||||||||
|
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Vd |
Vl |
Gem |
|
|
Bilabial |
б |
п |
п1 |
пп |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
м |
в |
Dento-Alveolar |
д |
т |
т1 |
тт |
|
ц |
ц1 |
цц |
з |
с |
сс |
н |
р / л |
Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
ч |
ч1 |
чч |
ж |
ш |
щ |
|
|
Labio-Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
чв |
ч1ч1в |
ччв |
жв |
шв |
щв |
|
|
Velar |
г |
к |
к1 |
кк |
|
|
|
|
|
хь |
хьхь |
|
й |
Labio-Velar |
гв |
кв |
к1в |
ккв |
|
|
|
|
|
хьв |
хьхьв |
|
|
Uvular |
|
хъ |
кь |
къ |
|
|
|
|
гъ |
х |
хх |
|
|
Labio-Uvular |
|
хъв |
кв1 |
къкъв |
|
|
|
|
гъв |
хв |
ххв |
|
|
Pharyngeal |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
х1 |
|
|
|
Laryngeal |
|
|
ъ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
гь |
|
|
|
Cumulation: Consonants in Caucasian languages
|
Stops |
Affricates |
Spirants |
N. |
Ap. |
|||||||||||
|
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Gem/ Gl |
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
Gem/ Gl |
Vd |
Vl |
Gl |
Gem |
|
|
Bilabial |
b |
p |
p’ |
p: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
v |
f |
f’ |
f: |
m |
w ~ B |
Dento-Alveolar |
d |
t |
t’ |
t: |
t:’ |
dz |
ts |
ts’ |
ts: |
ts:’ |
z |
s |
s’ |
s: |
n |
r / l |
Dento-Labial |
dʷ |
tʷ |
tʷ’ |
t:ʷ |
t:ʷ’ |
dzʷ |
tsʷ |
tsʷ’ |
tsʷ: |
ts:ʷ’ |
zʷ |
sʷ |
sʷ’ |
s:ʷ |
|
|
Alveo-Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
dʑ |
tɕ |
tɕ’ |
|
|
ʑ |
ɕ |
ɕ’ |
|
|
|
Labio-AlvPal |
|
|
|
|
|
dʑʷ |
tɕʷ |
tɕʷ’ |
|
|
ʑʷ |
ɕʷ |
ɕʷ’ |
|
|
|
Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
dʒ |
tS |
tS’ |
tS: |
tS:’ |
ʒ |
ʃ |
ʃ' |
ʃ: |
|
|
Labio-Palatal |
|
|
|
|
|
dʒʷ |
tSʷ |
tSʷ’ |
tS:ʷ |
tS:ʷ’ |
ʒʷ |
ʃʷ |
ʃʷ’ |
ʃ:ʷ |
|
|
Lateral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
tɬ |
tɬ’ |
tɬ: |
tɬ:’ |
|
ɬ |
ɬ’ |
ɬ: |
|
|
Labio-Lateral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
tɬʷ |
tɬʷ’ |
tɬ:ʷ |
tɬ:ʷ’ |
|
ɬʷ |
ɬʷ’ |
ɬ:ʷ |
|
|
Velar |
g |
k |
k’ |
k: |
k:’ |
|
|
|
|
|
ɣ |
x |
|
x: |
|
j |
Labio-Velar |
gʷ |
kʷ |
kʷ’ |
k: ʷ |
k:ʷ’ |
|
|
|
|
|
ɣʷ |
xʷ |
|
x:ʷ |
|
|
Uvular |
ɢ |
q |
q’ |
q: |
q:’ |
|
|
|
|
|
ʁ |
χ |
|
χ: |
|
|
Labio-Uvular |
|
qʷ |
qʷ’ |
q:ʷ |
q:ʷ’ |
|
|
|
|
|
ʁʷ |
χʷ |
|
χ:ʷ |
|
|
Pharyngeal |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ʡ |
ħ |
|
|
|
|
Labio-Pharyng. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ʡʷ |
ħʷ |
|
|
|
|
Laryngeal |
|
|
ʢ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
h |
|
|
|
|
Black: Lak, RED + other ECL, Blue: + specifics of WCL
[up]
2.1 Head- and Dependent Marking: Mixed
2.2 Case marking on nouns:
ABS BF BF +
PL
OBL BF
+ SA:SG + CASE BF + SA:PL +
CASE
BF = Base Form, ABS =
Absolutive (Ø),
OBL = Oblique cases
SA = Stem Augment (lexical-based,
in parts classifying)
Case
forms
Absolutive -Ø
Genitive~Ergative(~Instrumental) -l
Dative -n
General Ablative -š:a
Comitative -š:al
Instrumental, Causal -ynu
Comparative -yar
Possessive/Adessive -(a)x̂
General Allative -x̂:un
Circumessive -xlu
Case/Series of Locatives
|
|
SERIES |
IN |
ON |
BEHIND |
BELOW |
AT |
AT (emph.) |
|
|
IN |
SUPER |
POST |
SUB |
AD |
AD2 |
|
|
CASE |
|
-wu- |
-y- |
-x(u)- |
-lu- |
-č’a- |
-c’(u)- |
ESSIVE |
Exact |
-Ø |
-wu |
-y |
-x |
-lu |
-č’a |
-c’ |
Region |
-x |
-wux |
-yx |
-xux |
-lux |
--- |
-c’ux |
|
LATIVE |
|
-a(tu) |
-wa(tu) |
-ya(tu) |
-xa(tu) |
-la(tu) |
-č’a(tu) |
-c’a(tu) |
DIR- |
-n-CL-ay |
-wun-CL-ay |
-yn-CL-ay |
-xun-CL-ay |
-lun-CL-ay |
-č’an-CL-ay |
-c’un-CL-ay |
|
AD- |
-n |
-wun |
-yn |
-xun |
-lun |
-č’an |
-c’un |
[Note: The functional description varies from author
to author]
2.3 Noun Classes: Basically covert
(no marking on nouns, but on dependent constituents)
Historically four classes, based on the distribution SG/PL:
|
|
Original System |
|
Lak |
|
|
|
|
|
SG |
PL |
SG |
PL |
|
|
|
I |
*w- |
*b- |
Ø-,
-w-, -u- (-b-) |
b- |
|
|
|
II |
*r- |
*b- |
d-,
-r-, -n-, -l- |
b- |
|
|
|
III |
*b- |
*d- |
b-,
-w-, -m, -p:- |
b- |
|
|
|
IV |
*d- |
*d- |
d-,
-r-, -n-, -l- |
d- |
|
|
|
V |
|
|
b-,
-w-, -m-, -p:- |
d-(only q:at:a ‘house’) |
|
|
Competing classifications
|
|
SA with Deixis/Referentializer |
|
Definite Attributive Marker |
|
I |
-na- |
|
-ma |
|
II |
-ni- |
|
-mur |
|
III |
-ni |
|
-mur |
|
IV |
-ni- |
|
-mur |
|
PL |
-ni |
|
-mi |
Semantic classes (Kumukh Type)
I Male human beings
II Historically: Female human
beings, now only for older women
III Historically: Radial
category, including referents that are positive/relevant for Lak society
IV Historically: Radial
category, including referents that are less positive/relevant for Lak society
Classes III and IV now have a mixed character. III also includes
children and younger women.
2.4 Qualitative Attributes (no case
marking) (= referential forms):
|
General |
Specific |
||
|
SG |
PL |
SG |
PL |
I |
-s:a |
-ma |
-mi |
|
II |
-mur |
|||
III |
-mur |
|||
IV |
-mur |
|||
2.5 Pronouns
2.5.1 Personal Pronouns (no ergative case; S=A;O)
|
SG |
|
|
PL |
|
|
|
|
ABS |
OBL |
|
ABS |
OBL |
|
|
1 |
na |
t:u- |
|
žu |
žu- |
|
|
2 |
ina |
wi- |
|
zu |
zu- |
|
|
Inklusive: žu k’iyagu (= ‚we, the TWO’)
Exclusive: žuwa k’iwas:a and variants
Third Person = Deixis / ga and tā represent the preferred anaphora
2.5.2 Deixis
Referential Verbal
As such DX+SA- DX+SA
+ COP
Qualifying DX DX:ADV
Subcategorization:
|
|
|
Kumukh |
Bartkhi |
Arakul |
|
|
|
πprox |
|
wa |
a |
wa |
|
|
|
πmed |
|
mu |
mu |
muw |
|
|
|
πdist® |
|
tā |
tā |
hawa |
|
|
|
πdist |
|
k’()a |
k’a |
ho |
|
|
|
πdist¯ |
|
g(ʷ)a |
g#(ʷ)a |
ho |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Early
Lak DPs |
Adverbs |
|
|
|
|
πprox |
|
*wa |
ši-k:u |
|
|
|
|
πmed |
|
*mu |
mi-k:u |
|
|
|
|
πdist® |
|
*ta: |
ti-k:u |
|
|
|
|
πdist |
|
*k’ʷa |
k’i-k:u |
|
|
|
|
πdist¯ |
|
*gʷa |
gʷi-k:u |
|
|
|
|
Inflection: |
|
I |
II-IV |
I-II PL |
III-IV |
|
|
|
|
ABS |
-Ø |
-Ø |
-y |
-y |
|
|
|
|
OBL |
-na- |
-ni- |
-nna- |
-nnu- |
|
|
2.5.3 Reflexives
|
I |
II |
III |
IV |
|
1sg |
na-wa |
na-ra |
na-wa |
--- |
|
2sg |
ina-wa |
ina-ra |
ina-wa |
--- |
|
3sg ABS |
cu-(wa) |
cu(-rda) |
cu(-p:a) |
cu-ra |
|
3sg OBL |
ca-C((m)-a) |
ci-C(-a) |
ci-C-(C’/ra) |
ci-C-(C’/ra) |
|
1pl |
žu-wa |
žu-wa |
žu-wa |
---- |
|
2pl |
zu-wa |
zu-wa |
zu-wa |
---- |
|
3pl ABS |
ciw(p:a) |
ciw(p:a) |
ciw(p:a) |
ciw/rda |
|
3pl OBL |
ca-C(-(m)a) |
ca-C(-(m)a) |
ca-C(-(m)a) |
ca-C(-C’/ra) |
|
[C = Case; C’ = assimilated to consonant of case morpheme]
2.5.4 Interrogative Pronouns
ABS OBL
‚who’ cu š:i-
‚what’ ci s:a-
‚which’ cukun-s:a
/ cukun-ma/-mur/-mi [lit.: Who [is said]…]
‚who’ cu-ma/-mur/-mi
‚how many/much’ ci-mi ~ cik-s:a
‚how’ cukun
‚why’ ciwan [lit. ci-w-a-n
what-iii-do-inf]
‘where?’ čʷu
‘where to?’ čun
‘where from’ čWa
2.5.5 Indefinite pronouns
I
ciriw
cuyaw
cis:ariw
cu-unugu --- cu-bun(u)gu ci-dunugu ca-bunugu
2.5.6 Negative pronouns
Interrogative
+ -č’aw ~ -k’uy
2.6 Numerals
2.6.1 Cardinals
|
|
I |
II |
III |
IV |
1 |
ca |
-wa |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
2 |
k’i |
-ya |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
3 |
šan |
-a
(-n- > m-) |
-na |
-ma |
-na |
4 |
muq’ |
-a |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
5 |
x:uʕ |
-ya |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
6 |
raʕx |
-a |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
7 |
arul |
-a |
-la |
-wa |
-la |
8 |
maʕy |
-a |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
9 |
urč’ |
-a |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
10 |
ac’ |
-a |
-ra |
-wa |
-ra |
11-19 ac’-niya NUM [ac’-n-iya = 10 + SA-SUPER:ABL]
21-29 q:u-niya NUM
30-39 zuwal-liy NUM
40 muq’-c’al…
50 x:uʕc’al…
60 raʕxc’al…
70 arulc’al…
80 maʕyc’al…
90 urč’c’al…
100 t:urš
Nominalized: ABS NUM + CL (*-wa/*-ra/*-ba/*-da)
OBL NUM + SA [+masc/-masc] + Case
2.6.2 Ordinals
NUM + -l-čin- + -s:a, -ma, -mur, -mi [Group]
NUM + -l-ku [Individuals]
2.6.3 Multiplicatives
NUM + -lla (V_),
-illa
(C_)
2.6.4 Grouping
NUM+ NUM: k’i-k’i-wa (III) ‚by
two’) etc.
2.7 Verb
2.7.1 Basic characteristics
* TAM: Tripartite system:
PAST vs. PRES vs. FUT (gerund~participle-/infinitive-based)
* Strong tendency towards
analytic TAM constructions
* Class agreement
* Hierarchic person
agreement marking (floating personal agreement markers (fPAM))
* Prefixing (class and
(older) preverbs) – suffixing (TAM) – clitisizing
(fPAM)
* Aspect/aktionsart
opposition via stem formation
* (Historically):
Transitive/Intransitive distinction via thematic vowels (*-a-/*-i- vs.
*-u-)
2.7.2 Basic pattern of synthetic TAM-forms
Unmarked Progressive Iterative
-Ø- -l- † (following the root) -aw-
(following the root)
Option *-n- / *-r-
Suppletion Suppletion
Underived
[† Historically
an Antipassive marker]
PAST PRES FUT
CL yes in parts in parts
fPAM in
parts in parts in parts
Marker -n(u) -a(y) -an (=Infinitive)
Options Stem suppletivism Stem suppletivism
Change of -C in root Change of -C in root
Example čič- ‚to write’
PAST či-CL-ču-nu či-CL-č-lu-nu či-CL-č-awu-nu
PRES čič-ay čič-l-ay čič-aw-ay
FUT čič-an- čič-l-an- čič-aw-an-
-nu > past
forms
-ay > present,
past, conditional, potential, imperative
-Vn (infinitive base)
> future,
optative, conditional
Underived progressive stems (examples):
č:wan ‘want’
t’un ‘say’
x:an ‘seem’
zun ‘work’
Some verbs lack a non-progressive:
š:aran ‘boil’
šanan ‘sleep’
zanan ‘walk’
Placement of -l-marker (durative, progressive):
1. Historically
(C)VC-roots: (C1)VC2-la-C2-
CL-it- > CL-it-la-t- ‘let’
las- > las-la-s- ‘take’
bus- > bus-la-s- ‘say’
2. Historically C-roots:
C-l(a)-
č-ič- > či-č-la- ‘write’
Opposition Confirmative vs. Inferential/Dubitative (-k:ar-):
na čič-ay-s:a-ra
čağar (Conf.
Present, non-progresssive)
I:abs write-pres-ass-sap:sg letter:abs
‘I do write a letter’
na
či-č-ay u-nu-k:ar čağar (Past)
I:abs write-pres
i:be:pres-dub letter:abs
‚Apparently, I write a letter.’
‚Apparential’ (‚it seems to X): Construction based:
Participle (-s:a) + x:ay CL-u-fPAM
na |
duš |
čağar |
čič-l-ay |
b-u-s:a |
x:-ay |
u-ra |
|
|
|
I:abs |
girl |
letter |
write-dur-pres |
iii-be:pres-part |
seem-pres |
i:be:pres-sap:sg |
|
|
|
‚it seems to me that the
girl is writing a letter.’
2.7.3 TAM-Forms (TV = Thematic vowel)
BASE |
TAM-Frame |
Form |
Type of fPAM |
|
Ger.Pres |
PRES. STEM |
-TV-y (here: TV= -a) |
|
|
|
Plein Present |
-a
|
1.,2.Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-a
|
1.,2.pl. |
-ru |
|
|
-ay |
3. |
-Ø |
|
Durative Present |
-ay
CL-u- |
1.,2.Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-ay
CL-u- |
1.,2.Pl |
-ru |
|
|
-ay
CL-u- |
3. |
-r |
|
Durative Past |
-away |
1.,2. |
-w |
|
|
-away |
3. |
-Ø |
|
Perfect Categorial |
-a |
1Sg. |
-w
|
|
|
-a |
1Pl. |
-rdu |
|
Conditional Present |
-awiya |
1. Sg/Pl |
-w |
|
Potential |
-aw |
1.,2. Sg |
-a |
|
|
-aw |
1.,2. Pl |
-u |
|
|
-aw |
3. |
-i |
|
Assertive Present |
-ays:a |
1.,2.Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-ays:a |
1.,2. Pl |
-ru |
|
|
-ays:a- |
3. |
-r |
|
Assertive Past |
-ays:iya |
1.,2. Sg/Pl |
-w |
|
|
-ays:iya |
3. |
-Ø |
|
Gerund Present |
-ay |
|
|
|
Gerund Present Durative |
-ayn-CL-a |
|
|
|
Gerund Locative |
-ayniy |
|
|
|
Gerund Time (parallel) |
-ayni |
|
|
|
Gerund Time (post) |
-ay(niy)kun |
|
|
|
Gerund Modal |
-aywax$ |
|
|
|
Gerund Conditional |
-ayniya |
|
|
|
Gerund Conditional Assertive |
-ays:aniya |
|
|
|
Gerund Conditional Present |
-arča(n) |
|
|
|
Participle Present |
-ays:a |
|
|
|
Participle Present Durative |
-ayn-CL-as:a |
|
|
Ger.Past |
PAST STAMM |
TV -u-
+ -nu // CL |
|
|
|
Past |
-na |
1.,2. Sg/Pl |
-w |
|
|
-na |
3. |
-Ø |
|
Past Archaic |
-u |
1.,2. Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-u |
1.,2. Pl |
-ru |
|
|
-u |
3. |
-ri |
|
Aorist (Preterite) |
-n- |
1.,2. Sg |
-na |
|
|
-n- |
1.,2. Pl |
-nu |
|
|
-n- |
3. |
-ni |
|
Past Assertive |
-s:a |
1.,2. Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-s:a |
1.,2. Pl |
-ru |
|
|
-s:a |
3. |
-r |
|
Pluperfect |
-s:iya |
1.,2. Sg/Pl |
-w |
|
|
-s:iya |
3. |
-Ø |
|
Gerund Past Durative |
-n-CL-a |
|
|
|
Gerund Past Locative |
-niy |
|
|
|
Gerund Past Time (parallel) |
-ni |
|
|
|
Gerund Past Time (post) |
-kun |
|
|
|
Gerund Past Modal |
-nax$ |
|
|
|
Gerund Past Conditional |
-niya |
|
|
|
Gerund Past Conditional Assertive |
-s:aniya |
|
|
|
Participle Past |
-s:a |
|
|
Infinitiv |
Infinitive |
-Vn |
|
|
|
Future Categorial |
-Vn |
1.Sg |
-na |
|
|
-Vn |
1.Pl |
-nu |
|
Optative |
-Vn-nu |
1.Pl |
-ča |
|
|
-Vn-na |
1. Sg, 2.,3. Pl |
-w |
|
Future Assertive |
-Vn-s:a |
1.,2. Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-Vn-s:a |
1.,2. Pl |
-ru |
|
|
-Vn-s:a |
3. |
-r |
|
Future Conditional |
-Vn-s:iya |
1.,2. Sg/Pl |
-w |
|
|
-Vn-s:iya |
3. |
-Ø |
|
Intentional |
-Vn-t’is:a |
1.,2. Sg |
-ra |
|
|
-Vn-t’is:a |
1.,2. Pl |
-ru |
|
|
-Vn-t’is:a |
3. |
-r |
|
Gerund Future |
-Vn-nu |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Durative |
-Vn-CL-a |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Intentional |
-Vn-t’iy |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Intentional Durative |
-Vn-t’in-CL-a |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Time (parallel) |
-Vn-in |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Time (ante) |
-Vn-c’a |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Conditional |
-Vn-t’iniya |
|
|
|
Gerund Future Conditional Assertive |
-Vn-t’is:aniya |
|
|
|
Participle Future |
-Vn-(nu)-s:a |
|
|
|
Participle Future Durative |
-Vn-CL-s:a |
|
|
|
Participle Future Intentional |
-Vn-t’is:a |
|
|
|
Participle Future Intentional Durative |
-Vn-t’in-CL-s:a |
|
|
Imperative
Transitive: -a or -i
Intransitive: -u
E.g.
busan IMP bus-i ‘say'
lasun IMP las-i ‘take’
bačin IMP bač-u ‘go’
lač’un IMP lač’-u ‘fix onself’
Note: Durative > Intransitive
buslan IMP bus-la-s-u ‘say:DUR’
laslan IMP las-la-s-u ‘take:DUR’
Imperative Stem: 2sg 2pl Hortative
(3sg/pl)
-Ø -(ya)ra -ča
Prohibitive: ma- + -ara -ari
Position of -ma-: Prefixing
(e.g. ma-čič-ari
‘do not write (pl)!) or endoclitic (e.g. či-ma-č-ari)
Interrogative (polar questions): -w (e.g. ina u-w-k’(u)-ra-w ? ‘did
you (sg.) come?’
ta uč’-ay-wa-w ‘does (s)he come?’)
Negation: q:a-
Position of q:a-:
Prefixing (e.g. q:a-b-i-w-k’u-nu ‘it
wasn’t)
Endoclitic
(e.g. či-q:a-ču-nu
b-u-r ‘has not written’)
2.7.4 Light verbs/Auxiliaries used to
derive analytic TAM forms and diathesis:
1. CL-u-
(pres) - CL-i- (past) / Negative copula: -q:a-
e.g. či-w-ču-nu b-u-r
write-iii-$:past-past iii-be:pres-nsap
‘has written.’
či-w-ču-nu
b-i-ya
write-iii-$:past-past iii-be:past
‘had written.’
2. CL-a-
(pres) - CL-u-
(past) > Causatives
3. CL-i-CL-k’- ‘become’ > Inchoative
4. x̂un
~ ša- (durative qanan, iterative šawan) > Anticausative
5. uč’in (past ku-) ‘say’ > Factitive
2.7.5 Class marking (S, A, or O):
1. Historically basic verb stems:
a. CV(C)- > Ø-
b. VC- > CL-VC
2. Historically derived verb stems (old preverbs or reduplication):
a. CVC- > CV-CL-C-
b. V-C- > CL-V-CL-C-
Example for 2b.: -i-k’- ‘become’
Reconstructed Actual form
I *w-i-w-k’- Ø-i-w-k’-
II *r-i-r-k’- d-i-r-k’-
III *b-i-b-k’- b-i-w-k’-
IV *d-i-d-k’- d-i-r-k’-
Note: Second part of discontinuous lexeme is glossed by ‘$’ (!):
b-a-w-ču-nu b-ur
iii-go-iii-$:past-past iii-cop:pres-nsap:s
‘it/she
went’
2.7.6 Floating Personal
Agreement Markers† (fPAM; see TAM table above for application):
|
|
Type I |
Type II |
Type III |
Type IV |
1sg |
SAP |
-r-a |
-r-a |
-a |
-w |
2sg |
|||||
3sg |
nSAP |
-r
< *-r-i |
-Ø |
-i |
-Ø |
1pl |
SAP |
-r-u |
-r-u |
-u |
-w |
2pl |
|||||
3pl |
nSAP |
-r
< *-r-i |
-Ø |
-i |
-Ø |
† -r- is
assimilated to preceding -n- or -l-.
Agreement patterns of fPAM:
a. Non-Assertive
1. In intransitive
clauses: S (Subjective)
2. In transitive clauses:
Hierarchic (A (Agentive) or O (Objective):
|
|
O |
|||||
|
|
1SG |
2SG |
3SG |
1PL |
2PL |
3PL |
A |
1SG |
--- |
O |
A |
--- |
O |
A |
2SG |
O |
--- |
A |
O |
--- |
A |
|
3SG |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
|
1PL |
--- |
O |
A |
--- |
O |
A |
|
2PL |
O |
--- |
A |
O |
--- |
A |
|
3PL |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
b. Assertive
Always O
c. -la-durative:
1. In intransitive
clauses: S( Subjective)
2. In transitive clauses:
SAP>SAP: A; else: O
|
|
O |
|||||
|
|
1SG |
2SG |
3SG |
1PL |
2PL |
3PL |
A |
1SG |
--- |
A |
A |
--- |
A |
A |
2SG |
A |
--- |
A |
A |
--- |
A |
|
3SG |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
|
1PL |
--- |
A |
A |
--- |
A |
A |
|
2PL |
A |
--- |
A |
A |
--- |
A |
|
3PL |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
O |
2.8. Adverbs
Lexical or derived from
adjectives with the help of –nu ~ -na
In parts
CL agreement with S or A:
x̂:inč’u-n-a-y la-w-gu-na
ahead-adv-i-loc
go-i-$:past-simple:past:nsap
‘he went
ahead.’
ga-y murx$-ru daiman
k’in-t:u-l-gu ğin-t:u-l-gu
dist-pl:abs tree-pl always winter-pl-gen-foc
summer-pl-gen-foc
š:uʕlli-n-ma
b-ik’-ay-s:a-r
green-adv-iii iii-be:pres-pres-ass-nasp
‘These
trees are always (in) green in winter and in summer.’
2.9 Postpositions
Lexical, agreeing in case
with corresponding locative case
2.10
Focus marker:
a. fPAM
b. -gu
2.11 Conjunctions
anma ~ amma ‘but’ (Arabic)
agar ‘if’ (Persian)
wa ‘and’ (Arabic)
ya ‘or’ (Persian)
gu ‘and,
focus’
ča ‘if’
gu-ma ‘also’
ča-gu ‘and
if, even if’
ya-gu ‘or’
nu-gu ‘although’
2.12 Interjections
ma ‘come
on!’
da ‘hey!’ (towards man)
il ‘hey!’ (towards woman)
yawa ‘attention!’
di ‘yes’
yux ‘no’ (Qumüq)
CL-q:a-r ‘is not, no’ (cl-be:neg-nsap)
2.13 Particles
-x:ʷa ‘but’
-ča ‘but’
-x:uraw ‘really?,
perhaps’
-niya ‘well, but’
-q’ay ‘however’
[up]
3.1 Basic clausal patterns
Intransitive: S (Subjective) : Always ABS, CL, fPAM
ba-w-ču-nu b-u-r marak’an buʕxt:ul-s:a
barzunt:a-y-x
iii-go-iii-$:past-past iii-be:pres-nsap Marakan(iii) high-attr mountain:pl:obl-super-ess:reg
‘Marakan was going (around) on [lit.: in the region of]
high mountains.’
Transitive Clauses: A (Agentive)
(ERG) > O (Objective) (ABS)
Agreement:
CL [basically past]: O (and A), fPAM: A or O (see above)
ta-na-l d-a-r-x:u-nu
d-u-r k'ili
dist-sa[masc]-erg iv-buy-iv-$:past-past
iv-cop:pres-nsap
saddle(iv).
‘He has bought a saddle.’
Pattern:
AGR CASE
CL fPAM
A Ø nSAP ERG
O IV --- ABS
3.2 Demotion of A > IO (verba sentiendi)
ut:i t:un
nawa b-i-w-č’-an-ni-n
now I:dat I:iii:ref iii-die-iii-$:pres-inf-sa[-masc]-dat
ħaž-li-y-n h-an č-ay b-u-r
hadzh-sa-super-all
go-inf
want-pres
iii-be:pres-nsap
‘Now I want to go on the hadzh before (lit: to) I die.’
Pattern:
AGR CASE
CL fPAM
A>IO Ø --- DAT
O>
3.3 Assertive
ta-na-l at:-ay
na
dist-sa[masc]-erg hit-pres I:abs
‘He hits me.’
ta-na-l at:-ay-s:a-ra
na
dist-sa[masc]-erg hit-pres-ass-sap:sg I:abs
‚He definitely hist me.’
3.4 -la-Split (see fPAM schema) [Agreement-based, fPAM and CL]
na at:a-a-ra tā
I:abs hit-pres-sap:sg dist:abs
‘I hit him
(just now).’
na at:-ay-s:a-r tā
I:abs hit-pres-ass-nsap dist:abs
‘I definitely hit him.’
na at-la-t-i-s:a-ra
tā
I:abs hit-dur-$-pres-ass-sap:sg dist:abs
‘I’m
definitely hitting him.’
3.5 Person split
[Case-based]
SAP: Neutral [S=A=O] (Old: Ergative: S=O;A]
nSAP: Ergative [S=O;A]
na at:-a-ra tā
I:abs hit-pres-sap:sg he:abs
‘I hit him.’
ta-na-l at:-ay na
dist-sa[masc]-erg hit-pres I:abs
‘He hits me.’
3.6 Summary of fPAM / CL-based splits:
|
A → O |
|||
|
SAP → SAP |
SAP → nSAP |
nSAP → SAP |
nSAP→ nSAP |
non-Assertive |
O |
A |
O |
O |
Assertive |
O |
O |
O |
O |
-la-Assertive |
A |
A |
O |
O |
3.7 Diathesis
a. A-promotion (foregrounding) [only in analytic TAM-constructions]
[‘Bi-Absolutive construction’]
Unmarked: bu-t:a-l b-a-w-:u-nu
b-u-r ču
father-sa-erg iii-buy-iii-$:past-past iii-be:pres-nsap horse:abs
‘Father
has bought a horse.’
Pattern:
AGR CASE
Verb Stem Copula
CL fPAM CL fPAM
A Ø --- --- fPAM ERG
O IV --- IV --- ABS
A-promotion: p:u b-a-w-x:u-nu
Ø-u-r ču
father:abs iii-buy-iii-$:past-past i-be:pres-nsap horse:abs
‘[It
was] father who] has bought a horse.’
Pattern:
AGR CASE
Verb Stem Copula
CL fPAM CL fPAM
A Ø --- I fPAM ABS
O IV --- --- --- ABS
Origin: Clefting of A >
S in clefted existential claused [‘[it was]x [who]…’
Funtion: Backgrpounding of
A, foregrouding of A, ~ habitual etc.
Mixed pattern:
bu-t:a-l
b-a-w-:u-nu
Ø-u-r ču
father-sa-erg iii-buy-iii-$:past-past i-be:pres-nsap horse:abs
‘Father
has bought a horse.’
Pattern:
AGR CASE
Verb Stem Copula
CL fPAM CL fPAM
A Ø --- I fPAM ERG
O IV --- --- --- ABS
b. Causative (
örč’-al t:uč čağar čič-in
b-u-n-ni
boy-erg I:ad:loc letter:abs write-inf iii-do:past-past-nsap
‘The boy had me write a letter.’
Pattern (pending on splits):
A AO† O
CASE ERG AD:LOC ABS
AGR fPAM + --- ---
CL --- --- +
†
Note: AO = embedded agent
c. Passives/Antipassives: None (Old
Antipassive has become grammaticalized as Durative)
3.8 Indirect relational primitives:
IO
(indirect objective): DAT
IA
(indirect agentive): ERG [controlled instrument]
CAUS [general instrumental]
3.9 Summary of relational primitives:
3.10 Verbal possession:
[Por =
Possessor, Pum = Possessum]
Por-LOC/GEN Pum-ABS V-AGR:Pum
3.11 Word order:
Most
usual pattern:
|
S |
LOC |
|
V |
|
A |
O |
|
V |
|
A |
O |
IO |
V |
|
A |
O |
IA |
V |
|
A |
OA |
O… |
V |
Word order
variation carries topical functions. __V is the favorite place for NewTop
3.12 Noun Phrase
DX[:AGR]
– NUM[:AGR] – ATTR[:AGR] – N
Pum:GEN –
Por:CASE
3.13 Subordination:
Converbs
and Participles, -(ši)-wu
used as converb to indicate general subordination
No overt
relative clauses
Occasionally.
conjuctions are used to form subordinate clauses
musa-l arcu
d-ul-lu-s:a š:ars:a la-r-gu-n-ni
Musa-erg money iv-give:past-past-attr woman
come-ii-$:past-past-nsap
‘The
woman whom Musa has given money came…’
ta-y
b-u-w-k’u-ku žu-gu h-an-nu
dist-pl:abs i/ii:pl-come-i/ii:pl-$:past-cv:post we-foc go-inf-sap:pl
‘When/After
they come, we, too, will go.’
ta-na-l lu
čiča-wu qin-nu
dist-sa[masc]-erg book write-sub good-adv
qun-ma-s:a
iš bur
big-iii-attr thing iii-be:pres-nsap
‘It’s a ver big thing that he has written the book.’
ina čan
n-ay u-ra-w
you:sg where=to
go:pres-pres i:be-sap:sg-and
na-gu
mik:un uč’-an-na
I-foc med:adv:all
i:go:pres-inf-sap:sg
‘Where
you go, I, too, will go.’
na hawa
b-a-wiya-w bazunt:a-l yalt:u….
I:abs air iii-do:pres-cond-1 moutain:pl-gen
above
‘I
would fly (high) above the mountains….’
3.14 Focus marker
Floating Agreement Markers can be added to any
constituent (except in S=A function) to focus this constituent. In texts,
however, propositional focus (fPAM added to verbs) is the default.
[Work in progress].
3.15 Comparison
X Y-COMP
ADJ COP
[up]
A Lak Swadesh List compared to Udi (Southeast Caucasian (Lezgian),
Ingush (Nakh) and major donor languages (approximation only!)
|
|
Lak
|
Udi
(Vartashen) |
Lezgi |
Ingush |
Persian |
Azeri |
1 |
I
|
na |
zu |
zun |
so |
men |
ben |
2 |
thou |
ina |
(h)un |
wun |
ћo |
to |
sen |
3 |
we |
žu |
yan |
čun |
txo /vay |
mā |
biz |
4 |
this |
wa, ga |
me |
i(m) |
yer |
in |
bu |
5 |
that |
tā etc. |
t’e
~ še |
a(m) |
üz |
ān |
o |
6 |
who |
cu, cʷa |
šu |
wuž |
mala |
ki |
kim |
7 |
what |
ci |
ek’a |
wuč ~ hi- |
fü |
če |
ne |
8 |
not |
q:a |
te |
ta- |
-(a)c- |
na |
-mI- |
9 |
all |
š:ala |
bütün |
wiri |
-erriga |
hame |
bütün |
10 |
many |
č’aʕwu, ħarza |
lap, gölö |
gzaf |
duq’a |
ziād |
čox, daha |
11 |
one |
ca; tak, anžah |
sa |
sa |
ca- |
yek |
bir |
12 |
two |
k’iwa |
p’aʕ |
q°’ed |
ši- |
do |
iki |
13 |
big |
qun-; buħpa |
kala |
č’exi |
-oaq’q’a |
bozorg |
büyük |
14 |
long |
laqi, maizilbu |
boxo |
yarġi |
-weaxa |
boland |
uzin |
15 |
small |
č’iwi; muʕrš:i |
k’ic’i |
ġʷeč’i |
zʕamiga |
kuček |
küčük |
16 |
woman |
š:ar, qamitaipa |
čubux |
dišehli |
q’ālsag |
zan |
gadın |
17 |
man |
adimina, čuw |
išu |
itim |
maʕasag |
mard |
kiši |
18 |
person |
insan, adiminal insan |
adamar |
insan |
sag |
nafar |
adam |
19 |
bird |
lelux:i |
q’uš |
nük’ |
ħazilg |
pandare |
quš |
20 |
dog |
k:ač:i |
xaʕ |
kic’ |
žʕaliy |
sag |
it, köpək |
21 |
louse |
nac’ |
nec’ |
net |
mez |
šepeš |
bit |
22 |
tree |
murx |
xod |
tar |
ga |
deraxt |
acaġ |
23 |
seed |
ħanna; quwa, k: |
cil, tum |
cil, tum |
gi |
dāne, toxm |
toxum |
24 |
leaf |
č’ap’i |
xazal |
peš |
ġa |
barg |
yarpaq |
25 |
root |
marx:a; daidiqu |
tum, č’um |
duwul |
ovla |
riše |
kök |
26 |
bark |
k:iri |
čəšq’əna |
čkal |
čħor |
pust |
qabıq |
27 |
skin |
burču; k:iri, k:amara |
t’ol |
xam |
c’uoka,
niћ |
pust |
dəri |
28 |
flesh |
biši; dik’ |
eq’ |
yak |
dulx |
gušt |
ət |
29 |
blood |
oʕ, oʕt:u |
p’i |
iwi |
c’iy |
xun |
qan |
30 |
bone |
t:apk’ |
uʕq’eʕn |
k’arab |
t’exk |
ostoxān |
sümük |
31 |
grease, oil |
aʕhušiwu; mai; ħa |
ćayl |
maq’,
pi |
muћ, deatta |
roġan |
piy, quyruq |
32 |
egg |
k:unuk |
qoqla |
kaka |
fu’ |
toxm |
yumurta |
33 |
horn |
qi; k’uru |
q’aʕnc |
karč |
mu³a |
šāx |
buynuz |
34 |
tail |
mah |
oʕǯ&il |
tum |
c’og |
dom |
guyruq |
35 |
feather |
t’imu |
posposk’al |
c’akul |
bedargj |
par |
lələk |
36 |
hair |
č’ara |
pop |
č’ar |
mos- |
mu |
saç |
37 |
head |
bak’ |
bul |
q’il,
kelle |
kuorta |
sar |
baş |
38 |
ear |
wič’i |
imux |
yab |
lergj |
guš |
gulaq |
39 |
eye |
a³ |
pul |
will |
bʕargj |
češm |
göz |
40 |
nose |
may; q:ip:a |
boʕxmoʕġ |
ner |
merž |
bini, damāġ |
burun |
41 |
mouth |
q’ac’ |
źomox |
siw, k’uf |
bagie |
dahān |
aġız |
42 |
tooth |
k:arč:i |
ulux |
sas, swax |
cergj |
dandān |
diş |
43 |
tongue |
maz |
muz |
mez |
mot: |
zabān |
dil |
44 |
claw |
šäp’i, bač’i |
č’äč’ik’ |
kak |
m³ār |
nāxun |
caynaq |
45 |
foot |
č:an |
tur |
kʷ’ač |
kog |
pā |
ayaġ |
46 |
knee |
nik |
k’aʕk’aʕp’ |
met |
guo |
zānu |
diz |
47 |
hand |
ka, xat’, q’ulbas |
kul |
ġil |
kulgj |
dast |
əl |
48 |
belly |
läq’a |
xorag |
rufun |
kit |
šekam |
garın |
49 |
neck |
q:aq:ari |
ozan |
xew, gardan |
foart |
gardan |
peysər boyunen ardı |
50 |
breast(s) |
qazam, k: |
c’ic’ik’ |
mam, xur |
t’ār |
pestān |
döš, sinə |
51 |
heart |
q:ük’ |
|
rik’ |
dog |
|
dil |
52 |
liver |
t:ilik’ |
ǯeǯär |
leq’ |
dixk |
ĵegar |
qara ciyər |
53 |
drink |
q’ač’an |
uġ- |
qʰun |
mal- |
nušid- |
ičmək |
54 |
eat |
kanan, dukan |
|
t’ün |
-u’- |
xord- |
yemək |
55 |
bite |
qapan; q’ac’a t’un |
k’aś- |
k’as- |
carg tuox- |
gazid- |
sancmaq |
56 |
see |
č’alan, k:ak:an, x:al qanan |
ak’-,
beʕġ- |
akun |
(bʕarg) g- |
did- |
görmək |
57 |
hear |
x:al ban |
imux lax- |
wan x’un |
xoz- |
šenid- |
gulaq asmaq |
58 |
know |
k’ulnu bik’an, xawar bik’an |
aba |
či- |
xov- |
dānest- |
bilmək |
59 |
sleep |
šanan |
bask’- |
ksun |
nab –u |
xābid- |
yatmaq |
60 |
die |
bič’an, lič’i$ x̂un |
bi-, p’u- |
q’in |
-al- |
mord- |
ölmək |
61 |
kill |
liqan, q:upar dan |
besb- |
q’in |
-ie- |
košt- |
öldürmək |
62 |
swim |
ħuzun |
oc’k’alp- |
sirnaw awun |
niek –u |
šenā kard- |
üzmək |
63 |
fly |
lex:an |
purp- |
luw gun |
ġat: |
parid- |
učmaq |
64 |
walk |
lečin; liqan |
horob- |
q:eq:ün |
liel- |
rāh raft- |
getmək |
65 |
come |
buč’an |
eġ- |
atun |
ħa- -iel- |
āmad- |
gelmek |
66 |
lie |
ut:u bišen |
bask’- |
q:atkun |
ul- |
xābid- |
uzanmaq |
67 |
sit |
š:aʕ bik’an |
arc- |
acuq’un |
-āġa- |
nešast- |
oturmaq |
68 |
stand |
ac’an |
čurd- |
aq:ʷazun |
ura-lāt:- |
istād- |
durmaq |
69 |
give |
bulun; k:ak:an ban |
tad- |
gun |
(-a)l- |
dādan |
vermək |
70 |
say |
halha t’un; busan |
p- |
luhun |
āl- |
goft- |
demək |
71 |
sun |
barğ |
beʕġ |
raġ |
mālx |
āftāb, xoršid |
günəş |
72 |
moon |
barz |
xač |
warz |
but: |
māh |
ay |
73 |
star |
c’uku |
qabun |
ġed |
soedq’a |
setāreh |
ulduz |
74 |
water |
š:in |
xe |
yas |
xiy |
āb |
su |
75 |
rain |
haral |
aġala |
marf |
doġa |
bārān |
yaġış |
76 |
stone |
čaru |
źeʕ |
q:ʷan |
qier |
sang |
daş |
77 |
sand |
q:un |
kum |
q:um |
ġum |
māseh |
qum |
78 |
earth |
duniäl |
oćal |
čil, naqʷ’ |
leatta |
zamin |
yer |
79 |
cloud |
t:urlu |
asoy |
cif, bulux |
moarx |
abr |
bulud |
80 |
smoke |
purk’u |
k’uyn |
gum |
k’ur |
dud |
tüstü |
81 |
fire |
c’u; cani |
arux |
c’ay |
c’i |
āteš |
od, alov |
82 |
ash |
lax |
iq’ ~
źeq’ |
rüqʰ |
yoq’ |
xākestar |
kül |
83 |
burn |
č:uč’an |
bačukt’- |
kun, aq:uġun |
-āg- |
suxt- |
yandırmaq |
84 |
path |
x:ullu, ärx:i |
yaq’ |
reqʰ |
niq’ |
rāh |
yol |
85 |
mountain |
zunt:u |
burux |
saw, daġ |
loam |
kuh |
daġ |
86 |
red |
aʕt’ul |
ćoʕćaʕ |
yaru |
c’ie |
qermez |
al, qırmızı |
87 |
green |
š:uʕlli |
däy, gög |
q:acu |
beac:ara |
sabz |
yašıl |
88 |
yellow |
qaqi |
neʕśum |
qʰipi |
wažaġa |
zard |
sarı |
89 |
white |
k’aʕla |
mac’i |
lacu |
k’ay |
sefid |
aġ |
90 |
black |
luq’i |
ma³yin |
č’ulaw |
wearža |
siyāh |
qara |
91 |
night |
x$:u |
śu, bias |
yif |
biysa |
šab |
gecə |
92 |
hot |
k’iri |
iġarix |
ifey |
dʕayx |
dāġ |
isti |
93 |
warm |
heli |
gam |
čimi |
mela |
garm |
ilıq |
94 |
cold |
daʕrq:u |
mi |
meq’i |
šiyla |
sard |
soyuq |
95 |
full |
durc’u; diaʕl, uc |
buy |
ac’ay |
-izā- |
pur |
tam, bütöv |
96 |
new |
c’u |
täzä, häsä, ini |
c’iyi |
kerda |
tāze |
yeni |
97 |
good |
x:ui |
šawat’, śel |
kʰsan |
dika |
xub |
yaxšı |
98 |
round |
k:urk:i |
k’ak’anik’ |
elq:ʷey |
geriga |
gerd |
kirdə |
99 |
dry |
q’awq’un |
q’ari |
q’uru |
yaq’a |
xošk |
quru |
100 |
name |
c’a |
c’i |
t’ʷar |
c’i |
nām |
ad |
[up]
6. Sample text with interlinear glosses (Žirkov 1955:140-141)
Text in original orthography (slightly corrected):
Аттитти бивк1ун бур къабивк1ун бур къабивк1унгу циванссия
ца шяраву ца Дигьил
Аьли т1исса
ца къужа ивк1ун ур. Ганал
бивк1ун бур
ца хъинну к1улли
бугьайсса ччиту. Га
ччитул ц1агу
марак1ан дирк1ун дур. марак1аннул к1улли
бугьлай Дигьил
Аьлич1а ац1ния ххюра шин
бартларгун бур. Ца кьини бувккун
марак1аннул
Аьлихь увкуну
бур. Аьлий
ттул ххирасса
халлу ттул вич1а къуллугъ
буллай ац1ния
ххюра шинни. Утти на хъунмагу
хъанан бивк1ун бура янин
чанигу чан хъанан
бивк1ун бур
ккарччивгу дагьлай
дур утти ттун
нава бивч1аннин
х1ажлийн гьан
чай бур. На вихь хъинну
тавакъю буллай
бура на х1ажлийн
т1айла букки
куну. Дигьил
Аьлил куну бур: Агь ттул ххирасса
ччитуй ттун гьаксса
къаччиссия ина
ттуятува лич1ин хьуну амма
цивави тти вин
мукун ччан бивк1унахьур вин
ччимур банна. На ина хъиннува
ххарину т1айла
букканна куну
бур. Мичча
Дигьил Аьлил мугьлат
бакъа ивсса ивну
ххуллинмай хъинхъинсса
азихъру х1адур
бувну бур. Ччат
бивщуну чулу ччанну
шархьун бакъухъру
аьрайн гьавккуртту
бувну бур. Яла
хъунмасса дяъватгу
бивчуну ччиту
х1ажлин т1айла бувккун
бур. Бавчуну
бур марак1ан
бюхттулсса барзунттайх
майдансса ардайх
хъунмасса рат1авух азихърал
ххуржинттугу
хъарайх дирщуну. Най най га азихъгу
бухлавгун бувххун
ккагуккашилну
гъарахьхьун биривну
атилгу хьуну. Ч1арахърал
вац1равун бивну
бур. Марак1аннул тикку
вац1лул дянивсса
ца кьанив гьантта
бик1ан кьасттирай
ликказанну дурну
дур. Ц1ан
лакьлан дирк1ун дур. Марак1ан дякьия ца
буххансса к1анттух лаглан
бивк1ун бур. Яла ганин цакуну
ца цухъ бак1райн
дагьну цивун бувххун
гъургъу дурцуну
шанан бивк1ун
бур.
Transcription with glosses:
at:i-t:i
|
b-i-w-k’u-n |
b-u-r
|
q:a-b-i-w-k’u-n |
b-u-r
|
now-red |
iii-be-iii-$:past-past
|
iii-be:pres-nsap |
neg-iii-be-iii-$:be-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
q:a-b-i-w-k’u-n-gu |
ci-w-an-s:-iya
|
ca
|
šaʕra-wu
|
neg-iii-be-iii-$:past-past-foc
|
what-iii-do:pres-inf-ass-past:dur
|
one |
village-in:ess
|
ca
|
dihil
|
äli
|
t’i-s:a |
ca
|
q:uža
|
i-w-k’u-n |
u-r. |
one |
Dihili |
Äli |
named-attr
|
one |
old=man |
i:be-i-$:past-past
|
i:be:pres-nsap |
‘Now, there was, there wasn’t - and what to do if there wasn’t - in a
village an old man named Dihil Äli.
ga-na-l
|
b-i-w-k’u-n |
b-u-r
|
dist¯-sa[masc]-gen |
iii-be-iii-$:past-past
|
iii-be:pres-nsap |
ca
|
qin-nu
|
k’ul-li |
buh-ay-s:a
|
č:itu. |
one |
good-adv
|
mouse-pl |
catch-pres-attr
|
cat. |
‘He had a cat that was nicely
catching mice.’
ga
|
č:itu-l
|
c’a-gu |
marak’an |
d-i-r-k’u-n |
d-u-r. |
dist¯ |
cat-gen |
name-foc |
Marakan |
iv-be-iv-$:past-past |
iv-be:pres-nsap |
‘And the name of that cat was Marakan.’
marak’an-nu-l |
k’ul-li |
buh-la-y
|
dihil-Äli-č’a |
|
Marakan-sa-erg
|
mouse-pl |
catch-dur-pres |
Dihil-Äli-ad:ess |
|
ac’-n-iy-a |
x:uʕ-ra
|
šin
|
bart-la-r-gu-n
|
b-u-r. |
ten-sa-super-abl |
five-iv |
year |
top-go-iv-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
‘Marakan fulfilled fifteen years of
catching mice at Dihil-Äli.’
ca |
q’ini |
b-u-w-k:u-n |
marak’an-nu-l |
|
one |
day |
iii-go:past-iii-$:past-past |
Marakan-sa-erg |
|
äli-x̂ |
u-w-ku-nu |
b-u-r. |
|
|
Äli-adess |
iii:say-iii-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
‘One day passed (by), [and] Marakan said to Äli:
äli-y
|
t:ul
|
x:ira-s:a
|
xallu
|
t:ul |
wič’a |
q:ulluğ
|
|
Äli-voc
|
I:poss
|
lovely-attr
|
lord |
I:gen |
you:sg:ad:ess |
service |
|
b-ul-l-ay
|
ac’-n-iy-a |
x:uʕ-ra |
šin-ni. |
iii-do:pres:dur-dur-pres
|
ten-sa-super-abl
|
five-iv
|
year-nsap |
‘Oh may belvoed lord, my serving you
ist (now for) fifteen years.’
ut:i |
na |
qun-ma-gu |
qan-an |
b-i-w-k’u-n |
b-u-ra |
now |
I:abs |
old-iii-foc |
become:dur-inf |
iii-be-iii-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-sap:sg |
‘Now I am becoming old.’
aʕ-ni-n
|
čani-gu
|
čan
|
qan-an
|
|
eye-sa-dat
|
light-foc |
few |
become:dur-inf
|
|
b-i-w-k’u-n |
b-u-r |
|
|
|
iii-be-iii-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
|
‘And the light has diminuished with
respect to [my] eyes.’
k:arč:i-w-gu
|
d-ah-l-ay
|
d-u-r |
|
|
tooth-pl-foc |
iv-fall=out-dur-pres
|
iv-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
‘And [my] teeth are falling out.’
ut:i
|
t:un
|
na-wa
|
b-i-w-č’-an-ni-n |
|
now |
I:dat |
I-iii:ref
|
iii-die-iii-$:pres-inf-sa[-masc]-dat
|
|
ħaž-li-y-n
|
h-an
|
č-ay |
|
b-u-r |
hadzh-sa-super-all
|
go-inf
|
want-pres
|
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
‘Now I want to go on the hadzh before
(lit: to) I die.’
na
|
wix̂ |
qin-nu
|
tawaq:uʕ
|
b-ul-l-ay
|
b-u-ra |
I:abs |
you:sg:adess |
good-adv |
plea |
iii-do:dur-dur-pres |
iii-be:pres-sap:sg |
na
|
ħaž-li-y-n
|
t’ayla |
b-uk:-i
|
ku-nu |
I:abs |
hadzh-sa-super-all |
directly |
iii-let=go-imp:trans:2sg |
say:past-past |
‘I am asking you [very] much to let
[me] go on the hadzh.’
dihil-äli-l |
ku-nu |
b-u-r. |
|
|
Dihil-Äli-erg
|
say:past-past
|
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
‘Dihil-Äli said:’
ah
|
t:ul
|
x:ira-s:a
|
č:itu-y
|
t:un
|
hak-s:a |
oh |
I:poss
|
lovely-attr
|
cat-voc |
I:poss |
sure-attr |
q:a-č:i-s:-iya
|
ina
|
t:u-y-atu-wa
|
lič’-in |
x̂u-nu |
neg-wish:pres-ass-past:dur |
you:sg |
I:obl-super-abl-and
|
let-inf
|
become:past-past |
‘Oh my beloved cat, I wouldn’t really want to let you (away) from me.’
amma
|
ci-w-a-wi |
t:i |
win
|
|
but |
what-iii-do-pot:nsap |
now |
you:sg:dat
|
|
mukun |
č:a-n |
b-i-w-k’u-n-ax̂ur |
|
|
so |
wish-inf |
iii-be-iii-$:past-past-ger:mod |
|
|
win |
č:i-mur
|
b-a-n-na. |
|
|
you:sg:dat
|
wish:pres-attr:iii
|
iii-do:pres-inf-sap:sg |
|
|
‘But what can I do? - now that you
are wishing so (much), I will do what you want.’
na |
ina |
qin-nu-wa |
x:ari-nu |
t’ayla |
I:abs |
you:sg:abs |
good-adv-and |
happy-adv |
directly |
b-uk:-an-na |
ku-nu |
b-u-r. |
|
|
iii-let=go-inf-sap:sg |
say:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
‘I will nicely and happily let you go
go directly.’
mič:a |
dihil-äli-l
|
muhlat
|
b-a-q:a
|
|
from=here |
Dihi-äli-erg
|
hesitation |
iii-do:pres-neg
|
|
i-w-s:a
|
i-w-nu
|
x:ul-l-i-n-m-ay |
|
|
i:reach-i-ass
|
i:reach-i-past
|
way-sa-super-all-iii-dir
|
|
|
qin-qin-s:a
|
aziq-ru |
ħadur |
|
|
good-good-attr |
food-pl
|
preparing |
|
|
b-u-w-nu
|
b-u-r. |
|
|
|
iii-do:past-iii-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
|
‘Then Dihil-Äli did not hesitate and – reaching and having reached [on] the way he prepared very good
food.’
č:at
|
b-i-w-š:u-nu
|
čulu |
č:an-nu
|
šar- x̂-un
|
bread |
iii-bake/hit-iii-$:past-past |
dry |
leg-adv |
boil-ac-past
|
baq:uq-ru |
ärayn=hawk:ur-t:u |
b-u-w-nu
|
b-u-r. |
|
halwa-pl
|
milk=bread-pl
|
iii-do:past-iii-past
|
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
‘He baked bread, boil [the meat of]
dry legs (= ham) and made halwa (and) milk bread.’
yala |
qun-ma-s:a |
daʕ’wat:-gu |
b-i-w-ču-nu |
č:itu
|
then |
big-iii-attr |
prayer-foc |
iii-spread-iii-$:past-past |
cat |
ħaž-l-in
|
t’ayla |
b-u-w-k:u-n
|
b-u-r.
|
|
Hadzh-sa-all
|
directly |
iii-go-iii-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
‘Then, having spoken out a strong
prayer, the cat went out directly for the Hadzh
b-a-w-ču-nu |
b-u-r
|
marak'an
|
buʕxt:ul-s:a
|
barzunt:a-y-x |
iii-go-iii-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
marakan |
high-attr
|
mountain:pl-super-ess:reg |
maydan-s:a |
ar-da-y-x
|
qun-ma-s:a |
rat'-a-w-ux
|
|
wide-attr |
plain-pl-super-ess.reg |
big-iii-attr |
gorge-pl-in-ess:reg
|
|
aziq-ra-l
|
x:uržin-t:u-gu
|
qa-ra-y-x
|
d-i-r-š:u-nu. |
|
food-pl-gen |
bag-pl-and |
shoulder-pl-super-ess:reg |
iv-hit-iv-$:past-past. |
|
‘Marakan went on high mountains, wide
plains, deep (lit. big) gorges [and] the food bags hit on [its] shoulders.’
n-ay
|
n-ay
|
ga |
aziq-gu
|
bux-la-w-gu-n
|
go:dur:pres |
go:dur:pres |
dist¯ |
food-and |
end-go-iii-$:past-past
|
b-u-w-x:u-n
|
k:a-gu-k:ašil-nu
|
ğara-x̂:un |
|
|
iii-become=tired-iii-$:past-past
|
red-foc-hungry-adv |
rain-all |
|
|
b-iri-w-nu
|
atil-gu
|
x̂u-nu. |
|
|
iii-fall-iii-past |
wet-foc |
become:dur:past-past |
|
|
‘Going, going that food, too, came to
an end, it [Marakan] bcame tired, it became very hungry and wet because of the
falling rain.’
č’araq-ra-l |
wac’-ra-w-un |
b-i-w-nu |
b-u-r. |
|
Zakatal-pl-gen |
wood-pl-in-all |
iii-go-iii -past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
‘It went into the woods of the
Zakatal[s].’
marak’an-nu-l |
tik:u
|
wac’-lu-l |
daʕn-i-w-s:a
|
ca |
q'an-i-w |
Marakan-sa-gen |
there |
wood-sa-gen |
middle-sa-in:ess-attr
|
one |
clearing-sa-in:ess |
hant:a
|
b-ik’-an |
q’ast:-ir-ay |
|
|
24=hours |
iii-be-inf |
goal-pl-super:ess
|
|
|
lik:azannu
|
d-u-r-nu
|
d-u-r. |
|
|
sleeping=place |
iv-reach-iv-$:past
|
iv- be:pres-nsap |
|
|
‘There, with the goal to stay 24 hours
on a clearing in the middle of the woods, Marakan reached a sleeping place.’
c’an |
laq’-l-an |
d-i-r-k’u-n |
d-u-r. |
|
darkness |
close-dur-inf
|
iv-be-iv-$:past-past |
iv- be:pres-nsap |
|
‘Darkness started to close [the day].’
marak'an
d-aʕq’-iya |
ca
|
b-ux:-an-s:a
|
k’an-t:u-x |
|
Marakan iv-freeze-past:dur |
one |
iii-go=into-inf-attr
|
place-pl-post:ess
|
|
lag-l-an |
b-i-w-k’u-n |
b-u-r. |
|
|
go-dur-inf |
iii-be-iii-$:past-past |
iii-be:pres-nsap |
|
|
Marakan was freezing [and] wanted to [lit. was to] go to a place (where) it could go into.’
yala |
ga-ni-n
|
cakunu |
ca |
cuq |
bak'-ra-y-n |
then |
dist¯-sa[-masc]-dat |
at=once |
one |
hole |
head-sa-super-all
|
d-ah-nu
|
ci-w-u-n
|
b-u-w-x:u-n
|
|
|
iv-fall-past
|
what-iii-do:past-past |
iii-go=into-iii-$:past-past
|
|
|
ğurğu
|
d-u-r-cu-nu
|
šan-an |
b-i-w-k'u-n
|
b-u-r. |
purr |
iv-bring=out-iv-$:past-past |
sleep:dur-inf
|
iii-be-iii-$:past-
past |
iii- be:pres-nsap. |
‘Then, suddenly, it realized a hole
(lit.: a hole fell onto [its] head]) – what has it
done? – it went in [and] started to sleep producing a
purr.’
7. Statistics (usage-based, extracted from text sample)
1. Statistics of phonemes:
ALL |
Total: 1141 |
|
Initial |
Total: 220 |
|
FINAL |
Total:
220 |
a |
190 |
|
b |
58 |
|
a |
55 |
u |
161 |
|
d |
18 |
|
n |
48 |
n |
129 |
|
a |
13 |
|
u |
44 |
i |
102 |
|
c |
13 |
|
r |
24 |
r |
65 |
|
m |
11 |
|
l |
14 |
l |
61 |
|
q |
10 |
|
i |
11 |
b |
55 |
|
č: |
8 |
|
y |
10 |
w |
48 |
|
n |
7 |
|
x |
5 |
y |
31 |
|
x: |
7 |
|
t |
2 |
d |
21 |
|
w |
6 |
|
x̂ |
2 |
k’ |
19 |
|
i |
5 |
|
ğ |
1 |
t: |
19 |
|
q: |
5 |
|
h |
1 |
g |
17 |
|
š |
5 |
|
q |
1 |
m |
17 |
|
t: |
5 |
|
uʕ |
1 |
q |
17 |
|
č |
4 |
|
w |
1 |
s: |
15 |
|
g |
4 |
|
|
|
c |
14 |
|
ħ |
4 |
|
|
|
h |
14 |
|
l |
4 |
|
|
|
č: |
11 |
|
t’ |
4 |
|
|
|
k: |
10 |
|
h |
3 |
|
|
|
t |
10 |
|
k |
3 |
|
|
|
x: |
10 |
|
k’ |
3 |
|
|
|
q: |
8 |
|
u |
3 |
|
|
|
x |
8 |
|
c’ |
2 |
|
|
|
ä |
7 |
|
ğ |
2 |
|
|
|
k |
7 |
|
k: |
2 |
|
|
|
č |
6 |
|
q’ |
2 |
|
|
|
c’ |
6 |
|
t |
2 |
|
|
|
š |
6 |
|
x$ |
2 |
|
|
|
x$ |
6 |
|
y |
2 |
|
|
|
aʕ |
5 |
|
č’ |
1 |
|
|
|
č’ |
5 |
|
r |
1 |
|
|
|
q’ |
5 |
|
x |
1 |
|
|
|
t' |
5 |
|
|
||||
z |
5 |
|
|
||||
ž |
5 |
|
|
||||
ğ |
4 |
|
|
||||
ħ |
4 |
|
|
||||
k' |
4 |
|
|
||||
u³ |
4 |
|
|
||||
š |
2 |
|
|
||||
’ |
1 |
|
|
||||
s |
1 |
|
|
||||
x$: |
1 |
|
|
1141 phonems in 220 words:
5.18 Phonemes per word
ALL Initial Final
Vowels: 308 21 111
Consonants: 833 199 109 (of them sonants: 97)
Compare overall frequency (based on 86524 tokens, usage-based):
a |
14737 |
b |
2137 |
č' |
653 |
x. |
291 |
u |
8988 |
m |
1916 |
š |
643 |
š: |
267 |
i |
6986 |
k |
1843 |
t: |
531 |
t' |
247 |
r |
6553 |
s |
1428 |
q |
513 |
x̂: |
242 |
l |
6285 |
č |
1414 |
ö |
433 |
ə |
211 |
n |
5839 |
o |
1195 |
x̂ |
391 |
ħ |
211 |
y |
3371 |
g |
1051 |
ž |
390 |
q' |
189 |
v |
3112 |
c |
897 |
h |
373 |
ğ |
116 |
d |
2658 |
x |
800 |
k' |
329 |
c' |
98 |
e |
2257 |
z |
736 |
ä |
298 |
f |
61 |
s: |
2253 |
p |
726 |
k: |
298 |
p: |
38 |
t |
2231 |
|
|
q: |
296 |
p' |
2 |
|
|
|
|
|
ALL |
|
86534 |
2. Morphemes in Text Sample (with frequencies):
Morpheme |
Function |
Frequency |
|
-a,
-atu |
abl |
Ablative |
3 |
-x$ |
adess |
Adessive |
1 |
-nu
|
adv |
Adverbial |
6 |
-x$:un |
all (2) |
Allative |
1 |
-in,
-un , -n |
all (1) |
Allative |
6 |
-x$ |
ac |
Anticausative |
1 |
-s: |
ass |
Assertive |
2 |
-s:a
|
attr |
Attributive |
13 |
-w,
Ø- |
i |
Class I |
9 |
b-,
-w-, -wa-, -ma |
iii |
Class III |
78 |
d-,
-r-, -ra |
iv |
Class IV |
20 |
-n
|
dat |
Dative |
3 |
-l,
-la |
dur |
Durative |
6 |
-x,
-ux |
ess.reg |
Essive (region) |
4 |
-l |
erg |
Ergative |
4 |
-gu
|
foc |
Focus |
10 |
-l |
gen |
Genitive |
7 |
-ax̂ur |
ger:mod |
Gerund Modal |
1 |
-i
|
imp:trans:2sg |
Imperative, transitive |
1 |
-w,
-wu |
in:ess |
Inessive |
3 |
-an,
-in, -n |
inf |
Infinitive |
14 |
-q:a- |
neg |
Negation |
4 |
-r,
-ni |
nsap |
Non-Speech Act Participant |
22 |
-n,
-nu, -un |
past |
Past |
37 |
-iya
|
past:dur |
Past (imperf./durative) |
3 |
-da, -ir, -li, -ra., -ru, -t:u, -w |
pl |
Plural |
14 |
-wi |
pot:nsap |
Potential nSAP |
1 |
-x
|
post:ess |
Postessive |
1 |
-ay,
-y |
pres |
Present |
8 |
-na,
-ra |
sap:sg |
Speech Act Participant Sg |
4 |
-i,
-li, -lu, -n, -nu, -ra |
sa |
Stem augment |
11 |
-na |
sa[masc] |
Stem augment |
1 |
-ni |
sa[masc] |
Stem augment |
3 |
-iy,
-y, -i, -ay |
super |
Super |
19 |
-y
|
voc |
Vocative |
2 |
SUM |
|
|
328 |
220 tokens with 328
morphemes = 1.49 morphemes per word.
[up]
8. Some references [Note:
this list is not exhaustive!]
Bouda,
Karl 1949. Lakkische Studien.
Heidelberg: Winter.
Burč’uladze,
G. 1987. Lak’uri zmna. Dro-k’ilota sist’ema.
Friedman, Victor 1984. Status and the Lak Verbal System. Folia Slavica, Vol. 7,
No. 1 2, 1984. 135-149.
Friedman, Victor 1988. On The Question of “Pluperfect” in Lak. Iberiul
k’avk’asiuri
enatmecnierebis c’elic’deuli (
Friedman, Victor 1989. On the Terminology for Lak Synthetic
Past Paradigms. The
Non Slavic Languages of the
Friedman, Victor 1990. Lak Oral Poetry in
Friedman, Vicor 1992. Lak Substantival Declension: 40
cases or 50? The Non Slavic Languages of the
Friedman, Victor, 1994a Ga in Lak and the Three
"There-s”:
Deixis and Markedness in Daghestan. NSL. 7: Linguistic Studies in the Non Slavic Languages of the
Commonwealth of
Friedman, Victor 1994b. Assertive Verb Forms in Lak. Non Slavic Languages of the
Friedman, Victor 1996. Gender, Class, and Age in the Daghestanian
Highlands: Towards a Unified Account of the Morphology of Agreement in Lak. NSL.8: Linguistic Studies in the Non Slavic
Languages of the Commonwealth of
Friedman, Victor 2003a. Lak Folktales: Materials for a
Bilingual Reader: Part Two. Shamsu’s Dog. Current Trends in
Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard
I. Aronson, ed. by Dee Ann Holisky and Kevin Tuite.
Friedman, Victor 2003b. The Expression of Speaker
Subjectivity in Lak. L’Énonciation médiatisée 2, ed. by Zlatka Guentchéva. Louvain:
Peeters. 2003. 75-83.
Kazenin, Konstantin. 1998. On patient demotion in Lak. In Kulikov and Vater (eds.): Typology of verbal categories: Papers
presented to Vladimir Nedjalkov on the occasion of his 70th birthday, pp.
95-116.
Kazenin, Konstantin I. 1999. Ličnoe soglasovanie
v lakskom jazyke: markirovannost´ i nejtralizacija. In
Ekaterina V. Raxilina & Jakov G. Testelec (eds.). Tipologija i teorija jazyka: Ot opisanija k ob“jasneniju: K 60-letiju Aleksandra Evgen´evica
Kibrika.
Murkelinskij, G.B. 1967. Lakskij jazyk. In: JNSSSR IV,488-507
[with bibliography].
Murkelinskij, G.B. 1971. Grammatika laksogo jazyka. Maxachkala.
Ragimov K.R. & A.Sh. Shixaliev 1991. Lakskij jazyk. [School
book]. Maxachkala: Dagučpedgiz.
Schiefner, Anton 1866. Bericht über B.v.Uslars kasikumückische Studien. St.Petersburg
Uslar, P. v. 1890. Lakskij
yazyk. Etnografija Kavkaza III.
Xaydakov, S.M. 1961. Očerki po leksike lakskogo jazyka. Moskva: Izd. AN SSSR.
Xaydakov, S.M. 1962. Laksko-russkij slovar’. Moskva: Gos.Izd. inostr. i nac. slovarej.
Xaydakov, S.M.1966. Očerki po lakskoj dialektologii. Moskva: Nauka.
Žirkov, L.I. 1955. Lakskij
jazyk.
Moskva: Izd. AN SSSR.
-------------------------------
Audio recordings of a Lak tale (+ text and glosses) by
Victor Friedman: http://home.uchicago.edu/%7Evfriedm/courses.html > Number 24600/34600
Ethnologue entry: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lbe
Lak on the internet: http://www.lakia.net/
Lak Forum: http://lakia.fastbb.ru
Lak presentation: http://www.dagens.narod.ru/lak/lakku.htm