The Lak Language – Лакку маз

 

A Quick Reference

Author: Wolfgang Schulze (IATS, LMU Munich) // © 2007 [third (augmented and corrected) version]

PDF-Version

 

Note: This overview does not represent a full coverage of Lak. The reader should at any rate refer to the bibliography given at the end of this presentation. The sections on morphosyntax and syntax conform to what can be called the typological format as used in standard functional descriptions of language. Also note that a number of Lak grammatical categories are a matter of dispute. The view taken in this presentation does not necessarily reflect the opinion of others doing research on Lak! All possible errors are mine!

Comments, suggestions, and corrections please mail to W.Schulze@lrz.uni-muenchen.de

 

Contents:

 

1. General Information

2. Phonology and writing system

3. Morphosyntax

4. Syntax

5. Lexicon

6. Sample text with interlinear glosses

7. Some statistics (phonetics and grammar)

8. Some references

Some links

 

1. General Information

 

Name: lak:u maz (лакку маз)

Genetic affiliation:  

            East Caucasian, old Type (see /kaukhist.pdf), separate branch.

            Closer relationship: Dargi, important isoglosses with Nakh (Chechen, Ingush, Bats)

 

ecl baum.jpg


Number of speakers: ~ 90.000 100.000

Written language: Yes (Cyrillic-based alphabet, see below)

Location: Central Daghestan:

lak global

lak gebiet all2

 

Towns and villages (in Lak orthography, incomplete list!):

Lakskij Rayon: Кьуба, Чlара, Ккуркли, Кума, Кlунды, Хьараша, Унчукутль, Гъумучи, Хъуна, Хьури, Кубра, Ури, Шовкра, Щара, Хурхи, Кlулушац, Хулисма, Бурши,

Kkul Rayon:      Къани, Вихьли, Ккули, Хайхи, Цыйши, Ваччи, Кая, Сумбатль, Цlушар, Цlовкра-2, Хосрех, Цlовкра-1

Others:             Аракул, Новолакрей, Тухчар, Гамиях, Новочуртах, Дучи, Ахар,

                        Новокули, Новолакское, Чапаево, Анжи, Каспийск, Щурагь, Москвa

 

lak dialects.jpg

Grouping:

         Sh-dialects

                   Arakul, Bartkhi, Shadni, Kumukh, Witskhi, Shali

         S-dialects

                   Wikhli, Pervotsovkri, Kayali-Mashiki; Wachi-Kuli

 

Earlier writing traditions: Arabic (until 1928), Latin (until 1938)

 

Early sources:

            * Translation of the Muçammad Eulogy al-burda (by al-Buṣīrī) ~ 1700.

            * Medical book, translation of the Tuxfat al-mucminīn (al-Djeilemi) (1734), preseved as a copy by Khadži-Ali from Khanar (1774).

            * Lak version of the Derbend-Name (by Mirza Khaydar, called Verizov) ~ 1800.

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2. Phonology / Writing System

 

1. Consonants

 

Transcription / Caucasianists Style

 

Stops

Affricates

Spirants

Nasals

Approximants

 

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Vd

Vl

Gem

 

 

Bilabial

b

p

p

p:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m

w

Dento-Alveolar

d

t

t

t:

 

c

c

c:

z

s

s:

n

r / l

Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

č

č

č:

ž

š

š:

 

 

Labio-Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

čʷ

čʷ’

č:ʷ

žʷ

šʷ

š:ʷ

 

 

Velar

g

k

k

k:

 

 

 

 

 

:

 

y

Labio-Velar

gʷ

kʷ

kʷ’

k:ʷ

 

 

 

 

 

ʷ

:ʷ

 

 

Uvular

 

q

q

q:

 

 

 

 

ğ

x

x:

 

 

Labio-Uvular

 

qʷ

qʷ’

q:ʷ

 

 

 

 

ğʷ

xʷ

x:ʷ

 

 

Pharyngeal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ħ

 

 

 

Laryngeal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

h

 

 

 

 

 

Transcription / IPA

 

Stops

Affricates

Spirants

Nasals

Approximants

 

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Vd

Vl

Gem

 

 

Bilabial

b

p

p

p:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m

w ~ B

Dento-Alveolar

d

t

t

t:

 

ts

ts

ts:

z

s

s:

n

r / l

Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

tʃ'

tʃ:

ʒ

ʃ

ʃ:

 

 

Labio-Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

ʷ

ʷ’

tʃ:ʷ

ʒʷ

ʃʷ

ʃ:ʷ

 

 

Velar

g

k

k

k:

 

 

 

 

 

x

x:

 

j

Labio-Velar

gʷ

kʷ

kʷ’

k:ʷ

 

 

 

 

 

xʷ

x:ʷ

 

 

Uvular

 

q

q

q:

 

 

 

 

ʁ

χ

χ:

 

 

Labio-Uvular

 

qʷ

qʷ’

q:ʷ

 

 

 

 

ʁW

χʷ

χ:ʷ

 

 

Pharyngeal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ħ

 

 

 

Laryngeal

 

 

ʕ

 

 

 

 

 

 

h

 

 

 

 

Writing System

 

Stops

Affricates

Spirants

Nasals

Approximants

 

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Vd

Vl

Gem

 

 

Bilabial

б

п

п1

пп

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

м

в

Dento-Alveolar

д

т

т1

тт

 

ц

ц1

цц

з

с

сс

н

р / л

Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

ч

ч1

чч

ж

ш

щ

 

 

Labio-Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

чв

ч1ч1в

ччв

жв

шв

щв

 

 

Velar

г

к

к1

кк

 

 

 

 

 

хь

хьхь

 

й

Labio-Velar

гв

кв

к1в

ккв

 

 

 

 

 

хьв

хьхьв

 

 

Uvular

 

хъ

кь

къ

 

 

 

 

гъ

х

хх

 

 

Labio-Uvular

 

хъв

кв1

къкъв

 

 

 

 

гъв

хв

ххв

 

 

Pharyngeal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

х1

 

 

 

Laryngeal

 

 

ъ

 

 

 

 

 

 

гь

 

 

 

 

lak vowels.jpg

 

Cumulation: Consonants in Caucasian languages

 

Stops

Affricates

Spirants

N.

Ap.

 

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Gem/

Gl

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

Gem/

Gl

Vd

Vl

Gl

Gem

 

 

Bilabial

b

p

p

p:

 

 

 

 

 

 

v

f

f

f:

m

w ~ B

Dento-Alveolar

d

t

t

t:

t:

dz

ts

ts

ts:

ts:

z

s

s

s:

n

r / l

Dento-Labial

dʷ

tʷ

tʷ’

t:ʷ

t:ʷ’

dzʷ

tsʷ

tsʷ’

tsʷ:

ts:ʷ’

zʷ

sʷ

sʷ

s:ʷ

 

 

Alveo-Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ʑ

ɕ

ɕ

 

 

 

Labio-AlvPal

 

 

 

 

 

dʑʷ

ʷ

ʷ’

 

 

ʑʷ

ɕʷ

ɕʷ

 

 

 

Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

tS

tS

tS:

tS:

ʒ

ʃ

ʃ'

ʃ:

 

 

Labio-Palatal

 

 

 

 

 

ʷ

tSʷ

tSʷ’

tS:ʷ

tS:ʷ’

ʒʷ

ʃʷ

ʃʷ

ʃ:ʷ

 

 

Lateral

 

 

 

 

 

 

tɬ:

tɬ:

 

ɬ

ɬ

ɬ:

 

 

Labio-Lateral

 

 

 

 

 

 

ʷ

ʷ’

tɬ:ʷ

tɬ:ʷ’

 

ɬʷ

ɬʷ

ɬ:ʷ

 

 

Velar

g

k

k

k:

k:

 

 

 

 

 

ɣ

x

 

x:

 

j

Labio-Velar

gʷ

kʷ

kʷ’

k: ʷ

k:ʷ’

 

 

 

 

 

ɣʷ

xʷ

 

x:ʷ

 

 

Uvular

ɢ

q

q

q:

q:

 

 

 

 

 

ʁ

χ

 

χ:

 

 

Labio-Uvular

 

qʷ

qʷ’

q:ʷ

q:ʷ’

 

 

 

 

 

ʁʷ

χʷ

 

χ:ʷ

 

 

Pharyngeal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ʡ

ħ

 

 

 

 

Labio-Pharyng.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ʡʷ

ħʷ

 

 

 

 

Laryngeal

 

 

ʢ

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

h

 

 

 

 

Black: Lak, RED + other ECL, Blue: + specifics of WCL

 

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2. Morphosyntax

 

2.1 Head- and Dependent Marking: Mixed

 

basic aec.jpg

2.2 Case marking on nouns:

 

                            SG                                 PL

         ABS             BF                                           BF + PL

         OBL             BF + SA:SG + CASE                BF + SA:PL + CASE

 

         BF = Base Form, ABS = Absolutive (Ø), OBL = Oblique cases

         SA = Stem Augment (lexical-based, in parts classifying)

 

         Case forms

 

         Absolutive                                

         Genitive~Ergative(~Instrumental)  -l

         Dative                                      -n

         General Ablative                         -š:a

         Comitative                                 -š:al

         Instrumental, Causal                            -ynu

         Comparative                              -yar

         Possessive/Adessive                  -(a)

         General Allative                         -:un

         Circumessive                             -xlu

 

Case/Series of Locatives

 

 

SERIES

IN

ON

BEHIND

BELOW

AT

AT (emph.)

 

 

IN

SUPER

POST

SUB

AD

AD2

 

CASE

 

-wu-

-y-

-x(u)-

-lu-

a-

-c(u)-

ESSIVE

Exact

-wu

-y

-x

-lu

a

-c

Region

-x

-wux

-yx

-xux

-lux

---

-cux

LATIVE

AB-

-a(tu)

-wa(tu)

-ya(tu)

-xa(tu)

-la(tu)

a(tu)

-ca(tu)

DIR-

-n-CL-ay

-wun-CL-ay

-yn-CL-ay

-xun-CL-ay

-lun-CL-ay

an-CL-ay

-cun-CL-ay

AD-

-n

-wun

-yn

-xun

-lun

an

-cun

[Note: The functional description varies from author to author]

 

 

2.3 Noun Classes: Basically covert (no marking on nouns, but on dependent constituents)

 

Historically four classes, based on the distribution SG/PL:

 

 

 

Original System

 

Lak

 

 

 

 

 

SG

PL

SG

PL

 

 

 

I

*w-

*b-

Ø-, -w-, -u- (-b-)

b-

 

 

 

II

*r-

*b-

d-, -r-, -n-, -l-

b-

 

 

 

III

*b-

*d-

b-, -w-, -m, -p:-

b-

 

 

 

IV

*d-

*d-

d-, -r-, -n-, -l-

d-

 

 

 

V

 

 

b-, -w-, -m-, -p:-

d-(only q:at:a house)

 

 

        

Competing classifications

 

 

 

SA with Deixis/Referentializer

 

Definite Attributive Marker

 

I

-na-

 

-ma

 

II

-ni-

 

-mur

 

III

-ni

 

-mur

 

IV

-ni-

 

-mur

 

PL

-ni

 

-mi

 

Semantic classes (Kumukh Type)

 

I        Male human beings

II       Historically: Female human beings, now only for older women

III      Historically: Radial category, including referents that are positive/relevant for Lak society

IV      Historically: Radial category, including referents that are less positive/relevant for Lak society

        

Classes III and IV now have a mixed character. III also includes children and younger women.

 

2.4 Qualitative Attributes (no case marking) (= referential forms):

 

 

General

Specific

 

SG

PL

SG

PL

I

 

 -s:a

-ma

 

-mi

II

-mur

III

-mur

IV

-mur

 

 

2.5 Pronouns

 

2.5.1 Personal Pronouns (no ergative case; S=A;O)

 

 

SG

 

 

PL

 

 

 

 

ABS

OBL

 

ABS

OBL

 

 

1

na

t:u-

 

žu

žu-

 

 

2

ina

wi-

 

zu

zu-

 

 

Inklusive: žu kiyagu (= we, the TWO)   

Exclusive: žuwa kiwas:a and variants

Third Person = Deixis / ga and represent the preferred anaphora

 

2.5.2 Deixis

 

                            Referential    Verbal

         As such        DX+SA-        DX+SA + COP

         Qualifying     DX               DX:ADV

 

         Subcategorization:

 

 

 

 

Kumukh

Bartkhi

Arakul

 

 

 

πprox

 

wa

a

wa

 

 

 

πmed

 

mu

mu

muw

 

 

 

πdist®

 

hawa

 

 

 

πdist­

 

k()a

ka

ho

 

 

 

πdist¯

 

g(ʷ)a

g#(ʷ)a

ho

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Early Lak DPs

Adverbs

 

 

 

 

πprox

 

*wa

ši-k:u

 

 

 

 

πmed

 

*mu

mi-k:u

 

 

 

 

πdist®

 

*ta:

ti-k:u

 

 

 

 

πdist­

 

*k’ʷa

k’i-k:u

 

 

 

 

πdist¯

 

*gʷa

gʷi-k:u

 

 

 

 

 

Inflection:

 

I

II-IV

I-II PL

III-IV

 

 

 

 

ABS

-y

-y

 

 

 

 

OBL

-na-

-ni-

-nna-

-nnu-

 

 

 

2.5.3 Reflexives

                                     

 

I

II

III

IV

 

1sg

na-wa

na-ra

na-wa

---

 

2sg

ina-wa

ina-ra

ina-wa

---

 

3sg ABS

cu-(wa)

cu(-rda)

cu(-p:a)

cu-ra

 

3sg OBL

ca-C((m)-a)

ci-C(-a)

ci-C-(C/ra)

ci-C-(C/ra)

 

1pl

žu-wa

žu-wa

žu-wa

----

 

2pl

zu-wa

zu-wa

zu-wa

----

 

3pl ABS

ciw(p:a)

ciw(p:a)

ciw(p:a)

ciw/rda

 

3pl OBL

ca-C(-(m)a)

ca-C(-(m)a)

ca-C(-(m)a)

ca-C(-C/ra)

 

[C = Case; C = assimilated to consonant of case morpheme]

 

2.5.4 Interrogative Pronouns

 

                   ABS             OBL

who            cu                š:i-

what           ci                s:a-

which                             cukun-s:a / cukun-ma/-mur/-mi      [lit.: Who [is said]]

who                     cu-ma/-mur/-mi

how many/much     ci-mi ~ cik-s:a

how                     cukun

why                     ciwan  [lit. ci-w-a-n what-iii-do-inf]

where?                 čʷu

where to?              čun

where from            čWa

 

2.5.5 Indefinite pronouns

 

         I                  II                 III                         IV                         PL

                                               ciriw

                                               cuyaw

                                               cis:ariw

         cu-unugu       ---                cu-bun(u)gu            ci-dunugu               ca-bunugu

 

2.5.6 Negative pronouns

         Interrogative + -čaw ~ -kuy

 

 

2.6 Numerals

 

2.6.1 Cardinals

 

 

 

I

II

III

IV

1

ca

-wa

-ra

-wa

-ra

2

ki

-ya

-ra

-wa

-ra

3

šan

-a (-n- > m-)

-na

-ma

-na

4

muq

-a

-ra

-wa

-ra

5

x:uʕ

-ya

-ra

-wa

-ra

6

raʕx

-a

-ra

-wa

-ra

7

arul

-a

-la

-wa

-la

8

maʕy

-a

-ra

-wa

-ra

9

urč

-a

-ra

-wa

-ra

10

ac

-a

-ra

-wa

-ra

 

11-19  ac-niya NUM [ac-n-iya = 10 + SA-SUPER:ABL]

21-29  q:u-niya NUM

30-39  zuwal-liy NUM

40      muq-cal

50      x:uʕcal

60      raʕxcal

70      arulcal

80      maʕycal

90      určcal

100     t:urš

 

Nominalized: ABS   NUM + CL (*-wa/*-ra/*-ba/*-da)

                   OBL    NUM + SA [+masc/-masc] + Case

 

2.6.2 Ordinals

                   NUM + -l-čin- + -s:a, -ma, -mur, -mi        [Group]

                   NUM + -l-ku                                        [Individuals]

 

2.6.3 Multiplicatives

                   NUM + -lla (V_), -illa (C_)

 

2.6.4 Grouping

                   NUM+ NUM:  ki-ki-wa (III) by two) etc.

 

 

2.7 Verb

 

2.7.1 Basic characteristics

 

         * TAM: Tripartite system: PAST vs. PRES vs. FUT (gerund~participle-/infinitive-based)

         * Strong tendency towards analytic TAM constructions

         * Class agreement

         * Hierarchic person agreement marking (floating personal agreement markers (fPAM))

         * Prefixing (class and (older) preverbs) suffixing (TAM) clitisizing (fPAM)

         * Aspect/aktionsart opposition via stem formation

         * (Historically): Transitive/Intransitive distinction via thematic vowels (*-a-/*-i- vs. *-u-)

 

2.7.2 Basic pattern of synthetic TAM-forms

TAM stems.jpg                         

Unmarked     Progressive                      Iterative

                            -Ø-               -l- (following the root)       -aw- (following the root)

         Option                             *-n- / *-r-

                                               Suppletion                       Suppletion             

                                               Underived

                                               [Historically an Antipassive marker]

 

                            PAST           PRES                    FUT

         CL               yes              in parts                  in parts

         fPAM           in parts         in parts                  in parts

         Marker          -n(u)             -a(y)                      -an (=Infinitive)

         Options                           Stem suppletivism   Stem suppletivism  

                                               Change of -C in root Change of -C in root

 

Example čič- to write

 

                   PAST  či-CL-ču-nu   či-CL-č-lu-nu           či-CL-č-awu-nu

                   PRES čič-ay           čič-l-ay                  čič-aw-ay

                   FUT    čič-an-                   čič-l-an-                 čič-aw-an-

 

         -nu                              >        past forms

         -ay                              >        present, past, conditional, potential, imperative

         -Vn (infinitive base) >        future, optative, conditional

 

Underived progressive stems (examples):

 

č:wan want

tun say

x:an seem

zun work

 

Some verbs lack a non-progressive:

 

š:aran boil

šanan sleep

zanan walk

 

Placement of -l-marker (durative, progressive):

 

         1. Historically (C)VC-roots: (C1)VC2-la-C2-

 

                   CL-it- >        CL-it-la-t-      let

                   las-    >        las-la-s-        take

                   bus-    >        bus-la-s-       say

 

 

         2. Historically C-roots: C-l(a)-

                   č-ič-   >        či-č-la-                   write

 

Opposition Confirmative vs. Inferential/Dubitative (-k:ar-):

 

na      čič-ay-s:a-ra                     čağar (Conf. Present, non-progresssive)

I:abs   write-pres-ass-sap:sg         letter:abs

I do write a letter

 

na      či-č-ay          u-nu-k:ar       čağar (Past)    

I:abs   write-pres       i:be:pres-dub            letter:abs

Apparently, I write a letter.

 

Apparential (it seems to X): Construction based: Participle (-s:a) + x:ay CL-u-fPAM

 

na

duš

čağar

čič-l-ay

b-u-s:a

x:-ay

u-ra

 

 

 

I:abs

girl

letter

write-dur-pres

iii-be:pres-part

seem-pres

i:be:pres-sap:sg

 

 

 

it seems to me that the girl is writing a letter.

 

 

2.7.3 TAM-Forms (TV = Thematic vowel)

 

BASE

TAM-Frame

Form

Type of fPAM

Ger.Pres

PRES. STEM

-TV-y (here: TV= -a)

 

 

 

Plein Present

-a

 

1.,2.Sg

-ra

 

 

-a

1.,2.pl.

-ru

 

 

-ay

3.

 

Durative Present

-ay CL-u-

1.,2.Sg

-ra

 

 

-ay CL-u-

1.,2.Pl

-ru

 

 

-ay CL-u-

3.

-r

 

Durative Past

-away

1.,2.

-w

 

 

-away

3.

 

Perfect Categorial

-a

1Sg.

-w

 

 

-a

1Pl.

-rdu

 

Conditional Present

-awiya

1. Sg/Pl

-w

 

Potential

-aw

1.,2. Sg

-a

 

 

-aw

1.,2. Pl

-u

 

 

-aw

3.

-i

 

Assertive Present

-ays:a

1.,2.Sg

-ra

 

 

-ays:a

1.,2. Pl

-ru

 

 

-ays:a-

3.

-r

 

Assertive Past

-ays:iya

1.,2. Sg/Pl

-w

 

 

-ays:iya

3.

 

Gerund Present

-ay

 

 

 

Gerund Present Durative

-ayn-CL-a

 

 

 

Gerund Locative

-ayniy

 

 

 

Gerund Time (parallel)

-ayni

 

 

 

Gerund Time (post)

-ay(niy)kun

 

 

 

Gerund Modal

-aywax$ur

 

 

 

Gerund Conditional

-ayniya

 

 

 

Gerund Conditional Assertive

-ays:aniya

 

 

 

Gerund Conditional Present

-arča(n)

 

 

 

Participle Present

-ays:a

 

 

 

Participle Present Durative

-ayn-CL-as:a

 

 

Ger.Past

PAST STAMM

TV -u- + -nu // CL

 

 

 

Past

-na

1.,2. Sg/Pl

-w

 

 

-na

3.

 

Past Archaic

-u

1.,2. Sg

-ra

 

 

-u

1.,2. Pl

-ru

 

 

-u

3.

-ri

 

Aorist (Preterite)

-n-

1.,2. Sg

-na

 

 

-n-

1.,2. Pl

-nu

 

 

-n-

3.

-ni

 

Past Assertive

-s:a

1.,2. Sg

-ra

 

 

-s:a

1.,2. Pl

-ru

 

 

-s:a

3.

-r

 

Pluperfect

-s:iya

1.,2. Sg/Pl

-w

 

 

-s:iya

3.

 

Gerund Past Durative

-n-CL-a

 

 

 

Gerund Past Locative

-niy

 

 

 

Gerund Past Time (parallel)

-ni

 

 

 

Gerund Past Time (post)

-kun

 

 

 

Gerund Past Modal

-nax$ur

 

 

 

Gerund Past Conditional

-niya

 

 

 

Gerund Past Conditional Assertive

-s:aniya

 

 

 

Participle Past

-s:a

 

 

Infinitiv

Infinitive

-Vn

 

 

 

Future Categorial

-Vn

1.Sg

-na

 

 

-Vn

1.Pl

-nu

 

Optative

-Vn-nu

1.Pl

-ča

 

 

-Vn-na

1. Sg, 2.,3. Pl

-w

 

Future Assertive

-Vn-s:a

1.,2. Sg

-ra

 

 

-Vn-s:a

1.,2. Pl

-ru

 

 

-Vn-s:a

3.

-r

 

Future Conditional

-Vn-s:iya

1.,2. Sg/Pl

-w

 

 

-Vn-s:iya

3.

 

Intentional

-Vn-tis:a

1.,2. Sg

-ra

 

 

-Vn-tis:a

1.,2. Pl

-ru

 

 

-Vn-tis:a

3.

-r

 

Gerund Future

-Vn-nu

 

 

 

Gerund Future Durative

-Vn-CL-a

 

 

 

Gerund Future Intentional

-Vn-tiy

 

 

 

Gerund Future Intentional Durative

-Vn-tin-CL-a

 

 

 

Gerund Future Time (parallel)

-Vn-in

 

 

 

Gerund Future Time (ante)

-Vn-ca

 

 

 

Gerund Future Conditional

-Vn-tiniya

 

 

 

Gerund Future Conditional Assertive

-Vn-tis:aniya

 

 

 

Participle Future

-Vn-(nu)-s:a

 

 

 

Participle Future Durative

-Vn-CL-s:a

 

 

 

Participle Future Intentional

-Vn-tis:a

 

 

 

Participle Future Intentional Durative

-Vn-tin-CL-s:a

 

 

 

 

Imperative

         Transitive:    -a or -i

         Intransitive:   -u

        

         E.g.

         busan           IMP bus-i               say'

         lasun            IMP las-i                take

         bačin            IMP bač-u               go

         lačun           IMP lač-u               fix onself

 

Note: Durative > Intransitive

         buslan          IMP bus-la-s-u        say:DUR

         laslan           IMP las-la-s-u                   take:DUR

 

Imperative Stem:     2sg     2pl               Hortative (3sg/pl)

                                  -(ya)ra          -ča              

 

Prohibitive:             ma- +  -ara    -ari

Position of -ma-:      Prefixing (e.g. ma-čič-ari do not write (pl)!) or endoclitic (e.g. či-ma-č-ari)

 

Interrogative (polar questions): -w (e.g.    ina u-w-k(u)-ra-w ? did you (sg.) come?

                                                        ta uč-ay-wa-w         does (s)he come?)

 

Negation: q:a-

Position of q:a-:      Prefixing (e.g. q:a-b-i-w-ku-nu it wasnt)

                            Endoclitic (e.g. či-q:a-ču-nu b-u-r has not written)

 

 

2.7.4 Light verbs/Auxiliaries used to derive analytic TAM forms and diathesis:

 

1. CL-u- (pres) -       CL-i- (past) / Negative copula: -q:a-

 

         e.g.    či-w-ču-nu              b-u-r

                     write-iii-$:past-past iii-be:pres-nsap

                        has written.

 

                   či-w-ču-nu              b-i-ya

                     write-iii-$:past-past iii-be:past

                        had written.

 

2. CL-a- (pres)         - CL-u- (past)                    >        Causatives

 

3. CL-i-CL-k- become                                   >        Inchoative

 

4. un ~ ša- (durative qanan, iterative šawan)    >        Anticausative

 

5. in (past ku-) say                                  >        Factitive

 

 

 

2.7.5 Class marking (S, A, or O):

 

1. Historically basic verb stems:

 

         a. CV(C)-      >        Ø-

         b. VC-          >        CL-VC

        

2. Historically derived verb stems (old preverbs or reduplication):

 

         a. CVC-                  >        CV-CL-C-

         b. V-C-                   >        CL-V-CL-C-

 

Example for 2b.: -i-k- become

 

                   Reconstructed         Actual form

         I        *w-i-w-k-                Ø-i-w-k-

         II       *r-i-r-k-                  d-i-r-k-

         III      *b-i-b-k-                 b-i-w-k-

         IV      *d-i-d-k-                 d-i-r-k-

 

Note: Second part of discontinuous lexeme is glossed by $ (!):

         b-a-w-ču-nu             b-ur

         iii-go-iii-$:past-past iii-cop:pres-nsap:s

         it/she went

 

 

2.7.6 Floating Personal Agreement Markers (fPAM; see TAM table above for application):

 

 

 

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

1sg

SAP

-r-a

 

-r-a

 

-a

 

-w

 

2sg

3sg

nSAP

-r < *-r-i

-i

1pl

SAP

-r-u

 

-r-u

 

-u

 

-w

 

2pl

3pl

nSAP

-r < *-r-i

-i

-r- is assimilated to preceding -n- or -l-.

 

Agreement patterns of fPAM:

 

a. Non-Assertive

         1. In intransitive clauses: S (Subjective)

         2. In transitive clauses: Hierarchic (A (Agentive) or O (Objective):

 

           

O        

 

 

 1SG

 2SG

 3SG

 1PL

 2PL

 3PL

A

1SG

 ---

 O

 A

 ---

 O

 A

2SG

 O

 ---

 A

 O

 ---

 A

3SG

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

1PL

 ---

 O

 A

 ---

 O

 A

2PL

 O

 ---

 A

 O

 ---

 A

3PL

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

 

b. Assertive

         Always O

 

c. -la-durative:

         1. In intransitive clauses: S( Subjective)

         2. In transitive clauses: SAP>SAP: A; else: O  

 

           

O        

 

 

 1SG

 2SG

 3SG

 1PL

 2PL

 3PL

A

1SG

 ---

 A

 A

 ---

 A

 A

2SG

 A

 ---

 A

 A

 ---

 A

3SG

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

1PL

 ---

 A

 A

 ---

 A

 A

2PL

 A

 ---

 A

 A

 ---

 A

3PL

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

 O

 

 

2.8. Adverbs

         Lexical or derived from adjectives with the help of nu ~ -na

         In parts CL agreement with S or A:

 

         :inču-n-a-y            la-w-gu-na

         ahead-adv-i-loc         go-i-$:past-simple:past:nsap

            he went ahead.

 

         ga-y             murx$-ru         daiman         kin-t:u-l-gu             ğin-t:u-l-gu

            dist-pl:abs   tree-pl                         always winter-pl-gen-foc      summer-pl-gen-foc

         š:uʕlli-n-ma   b-ik-ay-s:a-r

            green-adv-iii    iii-be:pres-pres-ass-nasp

         These trees are always (in) green in winter and in summer.

 

2.9 Postpositions

         Lexical, agreeing in case with corresponding locative case

 

2.10 Focus marker:

         a. fPAM

         b. -gu

 

2.11 Conjunctions

         anma ~ amma         but (Arabic)

         agar                      if (Persian)

         wa                         and (Arabic)

         ya                         or (Persian)

         gu                         and, focus

         ča                         if

         gu-ma                    also

         ča-gu                     and if, even if

         ya-gu                     or

         nu-gu                     although

 

2.12 Interjections

         ma                        come on!

         da                         hey! (towards man)

         il                           hey! (towards woman)

         yawa                     attention!

         di                          yes

         yux                       no (Qumüq)

         CL-q:a-r                 is not, no (cl-be:neg-nsap)

        

 

2.13 Particles

         -x:ʷa                      but

         -ča                        but

         -x:uraw                  really?, perhaps

         -niya                      well, but

         -qay                      however

 

[up]

 

 

3. Syntax

 

3.1 Basic clausal patterns

 

Intransitive: S (Subjective) : Always ABS, CL, fPAM

 

ba-w-ču-nu              b-u-r                      marakan       buʕxt:ul-s:a   barzunt:a-y-x

iii-go-iii-$:past-past iii-be:pres-nsap        Marakan(iii)      high-attr        mountain:pl:obl-super-ess:reg

Marakan was going (around) on [lit.: in the region of] high mountains.

        

 

Transitive Clauses: A (Agentive) (ERG) > O (Objective) (ABS)

                            Agreement: CL [basically past]: O (and A), fPAM: A or O (see above)

 

 

ta-na-l          d-a-r-x:u-nu                               d-u-r                      k'ili

dist-sa[masc]-erg   iv-buy-iv-$:past-past           iv-cop:pres-nsap     saddle(iv).

He has bought a saddle.

 

Pattern:

                   AGR                      CASE

                   CL      fPAM         

         A       Ø       nSAP           ERG

         O       IV      ---                ABS

 

 

3.2 Demotion of A > IO (verba sentiendi)

 

ut:i     t:un    nawa            b-i-w-č-an-ni-n

now      I:dat   I:iii:ref           iii-die-iii-$:pres-inf-sa[-masc]-dat

ħaž-li-y-n                h-an    č-ay            b-u-r

hadzh-sa-super-all go-inf want-pres       iii-be:pres-nsap

Now I want to go on the hadzh before (lit: to) I die.

 

Pattern:       

                   AGR                      CASE

                   CL      fPAM 

         A>IO  Ø       ---                DAT

         O>S   III      nSAP           ABS

 

 

3.3 Assertive Split (see fPAM schema) [Agrement-based, fPAM and CL]

 

ta-na-l                             at:-ay                    na

dist-sa[masc]-erg               hit-pres                      I:abs

He hits me.

 

ta-na-l                    at:-ay-s:a-ra                     na                        

dist-sa[masc]-erg   hit-pres-ass-sap:sg            I:abs

He definitely hist me.

 

 

3.4 -la-Split (see fPAM schema) [Agreement-based, fPAM and CL]

 

na      at:a-a-ra                

I:abs   hit-pres-sap:sg        dist:abs

I hit him (just now).

 

na      at:-ay-s:a-r                    tā                         

I:abs   hit-pres-ass-nsap     dist:abs

I definitely hit him.

 

na          at-la-t-i-s:a-ra                            tā               

I:abs   hit-dur-$-pres-ass-sap:sg              dist:abs

Im definitely hitting him.

 

 

3.5 Person split [Case-based]

           

SAP:  Neutral                   [S=A=O]       (Old: Ergative: S=O;A]

nSAP: Ergative                 [S=O;A]

 

 

na      at:-a-ra                 

I:abs   hit-pres-sap:sg        he:abs

I hit him.

 

ta-na-l                    at:-ay           na

dist-sa[masc]-erg   hit-pres          I:abs

He hits me.

 

3.6 Summary of fPAM / CL-based splits:

 

A O

 

 SAP SAP

 SAP nSAP

 nSAP SAP

nSAP nSAP

 non-Assertive

 O

 A

O

O

 Assertive

 O

 O

O

O

 -la-Assertive

 A

 A

O

O

 

 

3.7 Diathesis

 

a. A-promotion (foregrounding) [only in analytic TAM-constructions] [Bi-Absolutive construction]

        

 

Unmarked:    bu-t:a-l         b-a-w-:u-nu                     b-u-r                      ču

                        father-sa-erg  iii-buy-iii-$:past-past                       iii-be:pres-nsap        horse:abs

                   Father has bought a horse.

 

Pattern:

                   AGR                                         CASE

                   Verb Stem     Copula

                   CL      fPAM  CL      fPAM                    

         A       Ø       ---      ---      fPAM           ERG

         O       IV      ---      IV      ---                ABS

 

 

A-promotion:  p:u               b-a-w-x:u-nu                     Ø-u-r                     ču

                   father:abs      iii-buy-iii-$:past-past                       i-be:pres-nsap          horse:abs

                   [It was] father who] has bought a horse.

 

Pattern:

                   AGR                                         CASE

                   Verb Stem     Copula

                   CL      fPAM  CL      fPAM                    

         A       Ø       ---      I        fPAM           ABS

         O       IV      ---      ---      ---                ABS

 

         Origin: Clefting of A > S in clefted existential claused [[it was]x [who]…’

         Funtion: Backgrpounding of A, foregrouding of A, ~ habitual etc.

 

Mixed pattern:

                   bu-t:a-l         b-a-w-:u-nu                     Ø-u-r                     ču

                   father-sa-erg iii-buy-iii-$:past-past                       i-be:pres-nsap          horse:abs

                   Father has bought a horse.

 

Pattern:

                   AGR                                         CASE

                   Verb Stem     Copula

                   CL      fPAM  CL      fPAM                    

         A       Ø       ---      I        fPAM           ERG

         O       IV      ---      ---      ---                ABS

 

 

b. Causative (LV: CL-a-n do)

 

örč’-al           t:uč              čağar           čič-in           b-u-n-ni

boy-erg          I:ad:loc          letter:abs         write-inf           iii-do:past-past-nsap

The boy had me write a letter.

 

Pattern (pending on splits):

 

                            A       AO              O      

         CASE           ERG   AD:LOC        ABS  

         AGR   fPAM  +        ---                ---

                   CL      ---      ---                +

         Note: AO = embedded agent

 

 

c. Passives/Antipassives: None (Old Antipassive has become grammaticalized as Durative)

 

 

3.8 Indirect relational primitives:

 

         IO (indirect objective):       DAT

         IA (indirect agentive):        ERG   [controlled instrument]

                                               CAUS [general instrumental]

                           

3.9 Summary of relational primitives:

Lak AEC.jpg

 

3.10 Verbal possession:

         [Por = Possessor, Pum = Possessum]

         Por-LOC/GEN          Pum-ABS      V-AGR:Pum

        

3.11 Word order:

         Most usual pattern:

 

 

S

LOC

 

V

 

A

O

 

V

 

A

O

IO

V

 

A

O

IA

V

 

A

OA

O

V

 

         Word order variation carries topical functions. __V is the favorite place for NewTop

 

3.12 Noun Phrase

 

         DX[:AGR] NUM[:AGR] ATTR[:AGR] N

         Pum:GEN Por:CASE

 

 

3.13 Subordination:

         Converbs and Participles, -(ši)-wu used as converb to indicate general subordination

         No overt relative clauses

         Occasionally. conjuctions are used to form subordinate clauses

        

         musa-l          arcu    d-ul-lu-s:a                        š:ars:a         la-r-gu-n-ni

            Musa-erg        money iv-give:past-past-attr        woman             come-ii-$:past-past-nsap

         The woman whom Musa has given money came…’

 

         ta-y              b-u-w-k’u-ku                               žu-gu           h-an-nu

            dist-pl:abs   i/ii:pl-come-i/ii:pl-$:past-cv:post   we-foc            go-inf-sap:pl

         When/After they come, we, too, will go.

 

         ta-na-l                    lu       čiča-wu         qin-nu                   

            dist-sa[masc]-erg   book     write-sub         good-adv        

         qun-ma-s:a          bur

            big-iii-attr      thing    iii-be:pres-nsap

            Its a ver big thing that he has written the book.

 

         ina               čan              n-ay                      u-ra-w

            you:sg             where=to          go:pres-pres            i:be-sap:sg-and

         na-gu mik:un                   uč’-an-na

            I-foc   med:adv:all i:go:pres-inf-sap:sg

         Where you go, I, too, will go.

 

         na      hawa   b-a-wiya-w              bazunt:a-l              yalt:u.

            I:abs   air        iii-do:pres-cond-1     moutain:pl-gen           above

            I would fly (high) above the mountains.

 

3.14 Focus marker

Floating Agreement Markers can be added to any constituent (except in S=A function) to focus this constituent. In texts, however, propositional focus (fPAM added to verbs) is the default.

         [Work in progress].

 

3.15 Comparison

         X Y-COMP ADJ COP

[up]

 

4. Lexicon

 

A Lak Swadesh List compared to Udi (Southeast Caucasian (Lezgian), Ingush (Nakh) and major donor languages (approximation only!)

 

 

 

Lak

Udi (Vartashen)

Lezgi

Ingush

Persian

Azeri

1

I

na

zu

zun

so

men

ben

2

thou

ina

(h)un

wun

ћo

to

sen

3

we

žu

yan

čun

txo /vay

biz

4

this

wa, ga

me

i(m)

yer

in

bu

5

that

tā etc.

te ~ še

a(m)

üz

ān

o

6

who

cu, cʷa

šu

wuž

mala

ki

kim

7

what

ci

eka

wuč ~ hi-

če

ne

8

not

q:a

te

ta-

-(a)c-

na

-mI-

9

all

š:ala

bütün

wiri

-erriga

hame

bütün

10

many

čaʕwu, ħarza

lap, gölö

gzaf

duqa

ziād

čox, daha

11

one

ca; tak, anžah

sa

sa

ca-

yek

bir

12

two

kiwa

p

q°’ed

ši-

do

iki

13

big

qun-; buħpa

kala

čexi

-oaqqa

bozorg

büyük

14

long

laqi, maizilbu

boxo

yarġi

-weaxa

boland

uzin

15

small

čiwi; muʕrš:i

kici

ġʷi

zʕamiga

kuček

küčük

16

woman

š:ar, qamitaipa

čubux

dišehli

qālsag

zan

gadın

17

man

adimina, čuw

išu

itim

maʕasag

mard

kiši

18

person

insan, adiminal insan

adamar

insan

sag

nafar

adam

19

bird

lelux:i

q

nük

ħazilg

pandare

quš

20

dog

k:ač:i

xaʕ

kic

žʕaliy

sag

it, köpək

21

louse

nac

nec

net

mez

šepeš

bit

22

tree

murx

xod

tar

ga

deraxt

acaġ

23

seed

ħanna; quwa, k:uk:u, tuxum

cil, tum

cil, tum

gi

dāne, toxm

toxum

24

leaf

čapi

xazal

peš

ġa

barg

yarpaq

25

root

marx:a; daidiqu

tum, čum

duwul

ovla

riše

kök

26

bark

k:iri

čəšqəna

čkal

čħor

pust

qabıq

27

skin

burču; k:iri, k:amara

tol

xam

cuoka, niћ

pust

dəri

28

flesh

biši; dik

eq

yak

dulx

gušt

ət

29

blood

oʕ, oʕt:u

pi

iwi

ciy

xun

qan

30

bone

t:apk

uʕqeʕn

karab

texk

ostoxān

sümük

31

grease, oil

aʕhušiwu; mai; ħa

ćayl

maq, pi

muћ, deatta

roġan

piy, quyruq

32

egg

k:unuk

qoqla

kaka

fu

toxm

yumurta

33

horn

qi; kuru

qaʕnc

karč

mu³a

šāx

buynuz

34

tail

mah

oʕǯ&il

tum

cog

dom

guyruq

35

feather

timu

posposkal

cakul

bedargj

par

lələk

36

hair

čara

pop

čar

mos-

mu

saç

37

head

bak

bul

qil, kelle

kuorta

sar

baş

38

ear

wiči

imux

yab

lergj

guš

gulaq

39

eye

a³

pul

will

bʕargj

češm

göz

40

nose

may; q:ip:a

boʕxmoʕġ

ner

merž

bini, damāġ

burun

41

mouth

qac

źomox

siw, kuf

bagie

dahān

aġız

42

tooth

k:arč:i

ulux

sas, swax

cergj

dandān

diş

43

tongue

maz

muz

mez

mot:

zabān

dil

44

claw

šäpi, bači

čäčik

kak

m³ār

nāxun

caynaq

45

foot

č:an

tur

kʷ’

kog

ayaġ

46

knee

nik

kaʕkaʕp

met

guo

zānu

diz

47

hand

ka, xat, qulbas

kul

ġil

kulgj

dast

əl

48

belly

läqa

xorag

rufun

kit

šekam

garın

49

neck

q:aq:ari

ozan

xew, gardan

foart

gardan

peysər boyunen ardı

50

breast(s)

qazam, k:uk:u

cicik

mam, xur

tār

pestān

döš, sinə

51

heart

q:ük

uk

rik

dog

del

dil

52

liver

t:ilik

ǯeǯär

leq

dixk

ĵegar

qara ciyər

53

drink

qan

uġ-

qʰun

mal-

nušid-

ičmək

54

eat

kanan, dukan

uk-

tün

-u-

xord-

yemək

55

bite

qapan; qaca tun

kaś-

kas-

carg tuox-

gazid-

sancmaq

56

see

čalan, k:ak:an, x:al qanan

ak-, beʕġ-

akun

(bʕarg) g-

did-

görmək

57

hear

x:al ban

imux lax-

wan xun

xoz-

šenid-

gulaq asmaq

58

know

kulnu bikan, xawar bikan

aba

či-

xov-

dānest-

bilmək

59

sleep

šanan

bask-

ksun

nab u

xābid-

yatmaq

60

die

bičan, lič’i$ un

bi-, pu-

qin

-al-

mord-

ölmək

61

kill

liqan, q:upar dan

besb-

qin

-ie-

košt-

öldürmək

62

swim

ħuzun

ockalp-

sirnaw awun

niek u

šenā kard-

üzmək

63

fly

lex:an

purp-

luw gun

ġat:

parid-

učmaq

64

walk

lečin; liqan

horob-

q:eq:ün

liel-

rāh raft-

getmək

65

come

bučan

eġ-

atun

ħa- -iel-

āmad-

gelmek

66

lie

ut:u bišen

bask-

q:atkun

ul-

xābid-

uzanmaq

67

sit

š:aʕ bikan

arc-

acuqun

-āġa-

nešast-

oturmaq

68

stand

acan

čurd-

aq:ʷazun

ura-lāt:-

istād-

durmaq

69

give

bulun; k:ak:an ban

tad-

gun

(-a)l-

dādan

vermək

70

say

halha tun; busan

p-

luhun

āl-

goft-

demək

71

sun

barğ

beʕġ

raġ

mālx

āftāb, xoršid

günəş

72

moon

barz

xač

warz

but:

māh

ay

73

star

cuku

qabun

ġed

soedqa

setāreh

ulduz

74

water

š:in

xe

yas

xiy

āb

su

75

rain

haral

aġala

marf

doġa

bārān

yaġış

76

stone

čaru

źeʕ

q:ʷan

qier

sang

daş

77

sand

q:un

kum

q:um

ġum

māseh

qum

78

earth

duniäl

oćal

čil, naqʷ’

leatta

zamin

yer

79

cloud

t:urlu

asoy

cif, bulux

moarx

abr

bulud

80

smoke

purku

kuyn

gum

kur

dud

tüstü

81

fire

cu; cani

arux

cay

ci

āteš

od, alov

82

ash

lax

iq ~ źeq

rüqʰ

yoq

xākestar

kül

83

burn

č:učan

bačukt-

kun, aq:uġun

-āg-

suxt-

yandırmaq

84

path

x:ullu, ärx:i

yaq

reqʰ

niq

rāh

yol

85

mountain

zunt:u

burux

saw, daġ

loam

kuh

daġ

86

red

aʕtul

ćoʕćaʕ

yaru

cie

qermez

al, qırmızı

87

green

š:uʕlli

däy, gög

q:acu

beac:ara

sabz

yašıl

88

yellow

qaqi

neʕśum

qʰipi

wažaġa

zard

sarı

89

white

kaʕla

maci

lacu

kay

sefid

90

black

luqi

ma³yin

čulaw

wearža

siyāh

qara

91

night

x$:u

śu, bias

yif

biysa

šab

gecə

92

hot

kiri

iġarix

ifey

dʕayx

dāġ

isti

93

warm

heli

gam

čimi

mela

garm

ilıq

94

cold

daʕrq:u

mi

meqi

šiyla

sard

soyuq

95

full

durcu; diaʕl, uc

buy

acay

-izā-

pur

tam, bütöv

96

new

cu

täzä, häsä, ini

ciyi

kerda

tāze

yeni

97

good

x:ui

šawat, śel

kʰsan

dika

xub

yaxšı

98

round

k:urk:i

kakanik

elq:ʷey

geriga

gerd

kirdə

99

dry

qawqun

qari

quru

yaqa

xošk

quru

100

name

ca

ci

t’ʷar

ci

nām

ad

 

[up]

 

6. Sample text with interlinear glosses (Žirkov 1955:140-141)

 

Text in original orthography (slightly corrected):

 

Аттитти бивк1ун бур къабивк1ун бур къабивк1унгу циванссия ца шяраву ца Дигьил Аьли т1исса ца къужа ивк1ун ур. Ганал бивк1ун бур ца хъинну к1улли бугьайсса ччиту. Га ччитул ц1агу марак1ан дирк1ун дур. марак1аннул к1улли бугьлай Дигьил Аьлич1а ац1ния ххюра шин бартларгун бур. Ца кьини бувккун марак1аннул Аьлихь увкуну бур. Аьлий ттул ххирасса халлу ттул вич1а къуллугъ буллай ац1ния ххюра шинни. Утти на хъунмагу хъанан бивк1ун бура янин чанигу чан хъанан бивк1ун бур ккарччивгу дагьлай дур утти ттун нава бивч1аннин х1ажлийн гьан чай бур. На вихь хъинну тавакъю буллай бура на х1ажлийн т1айла букки куну. Дигьил Аьлил куну бур: Агь ттул ххирасса ччитуй ттун гьаксса къаччиссия ина ттуятува лич1ин хьуну амма цивави тти вин мукун ччан бивк1унахьур вин ччимур банна. На ина хъиннува ххарину т1айла букканна куну бур. Мичча Дигьил Аьлил мугьлат бакъа ивсса ивну ххуллинмай хъинхъинсса азихъру х1адур бувну бур. Ччат бивщуну чулу ччанну шархьун бакъухъру аьрайн гьавккуртту бувну бур. Яла хъунмасса дяъватгу бивчуну ччиту х1ажлин т1айла бувккун бур. Бавчуну бур марак1ан бюхттулсса барзунттайх майдансса ардайх хъунмасса рат1авух азихърал ххуржинттугу хъарайх дирщуну. Най най га азихъгу бухлавгун бувххун ккагуккашилну гъарахьхьун биривну атилгу хьуну. Ч1арахърал вац1равун бивну бур. Марак1аннул тикку вац1лул дянивсса ца кьанив гьантта бик1ан кьасттирай ликказанну дурну дур. Ц1ан лакьлан дирк1ун дур. Марак1ан дякьия ца буххансса к1анттух лаглан бивк1ун бур. Яла ганин цакуну ца цухъ бак1райн дагьну цивун бувххун гъургъу дурцуну шанан бивк1ун бур.

 

 

Transcription with glosses:

 

at:i-t:i

b-i-w-ku-n

b-u-r

q:a-b-i-w-ku-n

b-u-r

now-red

iii-be-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

neg-iii-be-iii-$:be-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

q:a-b-i-w-ku-n-gu

ci-w-an-s:-iya

ca

šaʕra-wu

neg-iii-be-iii-$:past-past-foc

what-iii-do:pres-inf-ass-past:dur

one

village-in:ess

 

ca

dihil

äli

ti-s:a

ca

q:uža

i-w-ku-n

u-r.

one

Dihili

Äli

named-attr

one

old=man

i:be-i-$:past-past

i:be:pres-nsap

Now, there was, there wasnt - and what to do if there wasnt - in a village an old man named Dihil Äli.

 

ga-na-l

b-i-w-ku-n

b-u-r

dist¯-sa[masc]-gen

iii-be-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

ca

qin-nu

kul-li

buh-ay-s:a

č:itu.

one

good-adv

mouse-pl

catch-pres-attr

cat.

He had a cat that was nicely catching mice.

 

ga

č:itu-l

ca-gu

marakan

d-i-r-ku-n

d-u-r.

dist¯

cat-gen

name-foc

Marakan

iv-be-iv-$:past-past

iv-be:pres-nsap

 And the name of that cat was Marakan.

 

marakan-nu-l

kul-li

buh-la-y

dihil-Äli-ča

 

Marakan-sa-erg

mouse-pl

catch-dur-pres

Dihil-Äli-ad:ess

 

 

ac-n-iy-a

x:uʕ-ra

šin

bart-la-r-gu-n

b-u-r.

ten-sa-super-abl

five-iv

year

top-go-iv-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

Marakan fulfilled fifteen years of catching mice at Dihil-Äli.

 

ca

qini

b-u-w-k:u-n

marakan-nu-l

 

one

day

iii-go:past-iii-$:past-past

Marakan-sa-erg

 

 

äli-

u-w-ku-nu

b-u-r.

 

 

Äli-adess

iii:say-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

 

 One day passed (by), [and] Marakan said to Äli:

 

äli-y

t:ul

x:ira-s:a

xallu

t:ul

wiča

q:ulluğ

 

Äli-voc

I:poss

lovely-attr

lord

I:gen

you:sg:ad:ess

service

 

 

b-ul-l-ay

ac-n-iy-a

x:uʕ-ra

šin-ni.

iii-do:pres:dur-dur-pres

ten-sa-super-abl

five-iv

year-nsap

Oh may belvoed lord, my serving you ist (now for) fifteen years.

 

ut:i

na

qun-ma-gu

qan-an

b-i-w-k’u-n

b-u-ra

now

I:abs

old-iii-foc

become:dur-inf

iii-be-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-sap:sg

Now I am becoming old.

 

aʕ-ni-n

čani-gu

čan

qan-an

 

eye-sa-dat

light-foc

few

become:dur-inf

 

 

b-i-w-ku-n

b-u-r

 

 

 

iii-be-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

 

 

And the light has diminuished with respect to [my] eyes.

 

k:arč:i-w-gu

d-ah-l-ay

d-u-r

 

 

tooth-pl-foc

iv-fall=out-dur-pres

iv-be:pres-nsap

 

 

And [my] teeth are falling out.

 

ut:i

t:un

na-wa

b-i-w-č-an-ni-n

 

now

I:dat

I-iii:ref

iii-die-iii-$:pres-inf-sa[-masc]-dat

 

 

ħaž-li-y-n

h-an

č-ay

 

b-u-r

hadzh-sa-super-all

go-inf

want-pres

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

Now I want to go on the hadzh before (lit: to) I die.

 

na

wi

qin-nu

tawaq:uʕ

b-ul-l-ay

b-u-ra

I:abs

you:sg:adess

good-adv

plea

iii-do:dur-dur-pres

iii-be:pres-sap:sg

 

na

ħaž-li-y-n

tayla

b-uk:-i

ku-nu

I:abs

hadzh-sa-super-all

directly

iii-let=go-imp:trans:2sg

say:past-past

I am asking you [very] much to let [me] go on the hadzh.

 

dihil-äli-l

ku-nu

b-u-r.

 

 

Dihil-Äli-erg

say:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

 

Dihil-Äli said:

 

ah

t:ul

x:ira-s:a

č:itu-y

t:un

hak-s:a

oh

I:poss

lovely-attr

cat-voc

I:poss

sure-attr

 

q:a-č:i-s:-iya

ina

t:u-y-atu-wa

lič-in

u-nu

neg-wish:pres-ass-past:dur

you:sg

I:obl-super-abl-and

let-inf

become:past-past

Oh my beloved cat, I wouldnt really want to let you (away) from me.

 

amma

ci-w-a-wi

t:i

win

 

but

what-iii-do-pot:nsap

now

you:sg:dat

 

 

mukun

č:a-n

b-i-w-ku-n-aur

 

 

so

wish-inf

iii-be-iii-$:past-past-ger:mod

 

 

 

win

č:i-mur

b-a-n-na.

 

 

you:sg:dat

wish:pres-attr:iii

iii-do:pres-inf-sap:sg

 

 

But what can I do? - now that you are wishing so (much), I will do what you want.

 

na

ina

qin-nu-wa

x:ari-nu

tayla

I:abs

you:sg:abs

good-adv-and

happy-adv

directly

 

b-uk:-an-na

ku-nu

b-u-r.

 

 

iii-let=go-inf-sap:sg

say:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

 

I will nicely and happily let you go go directly.

 

mič:a

dihil-äli-l

muhlat

b-a-q:a

 

from=here

Dihi-äli-erg

hesitation

iii-do:pres-neg

 

 

i-w-s:a

i-w-nu

x:ul-l-i-n-m-ay

 

 

i:reach-i-ass

i:reach-i-past

way-sa-super-all-iii-dir

 

 

 

qin-qin-s:a

aziq-ru

 ħadur

 

 

good-good-attr

food-pl

preparing

 

 

 

b-u-w-nu

b-u-r.

 

 

 

iii-do:past-iii-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

 

 

Then Dihil-Äli did not hesitate and reaching and having reached [on] the way he prepared very good food.

 

č:at

b-i-w-š:u-nu

čulu

č:an-nu

šar- -un

bread

iii-bake/hit-iii-$:past-past

dry

leg-adv

boil-ac-past

 

baq:uq-ru

ärayn=hawk:ur-t:u

b-u-w-nu

b-u-r.

 

halwa-pl

milk=bread-pl

iii-do:past-iii-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

He baked bread, boil [the meat of] dry legs (= ham) and made halwa (and) milk bread.

 

yala

qun-ma-s:a

daʕwat:-gu

b-i-w-ču-nu

č:itu

then

big-iii-attr

prayer-foc

iii-spread-iii-$:past-past

cat

 

ħaž-l-in

 tayla

b-u-w-k:u-n

b-u-r.

 

Hadzh-sa-all

directly

iii-go-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

Then, having spoken out a strong prayer, the cat went out directly for the Hadzh

 

b-a-w-ču-nu

b-u-r

marak'an

buʕxt:ul-s:a

barzunt:a-y-x

iii-go-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

marakan

high-attr

mountain:pl-super-ess:reg

 

maydan-s:a

ar-da-y-x

qun-ma-s:a

rat'-a-w-ux

 

wide-attr

plain-pl-super-ess.reg

big-iii-attr

gorge-pl-in-ess:reg

 

 

aziq-ra-l

x:uržin-t:u-gu

qa-ra-y-x

d-i-r-š:u-nu.

 

food-pl-gen

bag-pl-and

shoulder-pl-super-ess:reg

iv-hit-iv-$:past-past.

 

Marakan went on high mountains, wide plains, deep (lit. big) gorges [and] the food bags hit on [its] shoulders.

 

n-ay

n-ay

ga

aziq-gu

bux-la-w-gu-n

go:dur:pres

go:dur:pres

dist¯

food-and

end-go-iii-$:past-past

 

b-u-w-x:u-n

k:a-gu-k:ašil-nu

ğara-x̂:un

 

 

iii-become=tired-iii-$:past-past

red-foc-hungry-adv

rain-all

 

 

 

b-iri-w-nu

atil-gu

x̂u-nu.

 

 

iii-fall-iii-past

wet-foc

become:dur:past-past

 

 

Going, going that food, too, came to an end, it [Marakan] bcame tired, it became very hungry and wet because of the falling rain.

 

čaraq-ra-l

wac-ra-w-un

b-i-w-nu

b-u-r.

 

Zakatal-pl-gen

wood-pl-in-all

iii-go-iii -past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

It went into the woods of the Zakatal[s].

 

marakan-nu-l

tik:u

wac-lu-l

daʕn-i-w-s:a

ca

q'an-i-w

Marakan-sa-gen

there

wood-sa-gen

middle-sa-in:ess-attr

one

clearing-sa-in:ess

 

hant:a

b-ik-an

qast:-ir-ay

 

 

24=hours

iii-be-inf

goal-pl-super:ess

 

 

 

lik:azannu

d-u-r-nu

d-u-r.

 

 

sleeping=place

iv-reach-iv-$:past

iv- be:pres-nsap

 

 

There, with the goal to stay 24 hours on a clearing in the middle of the woods, Marakan reached a sleeping place.

 

can

laq-l-an

d-i-r-ku-n

d-u-r.

 

darkness

close-dur-inf

iv-be-iv-$:past-past

iv- be:pres-nsap

 

Darkness started to close [the day].

 

marak'an d-aʕq-iya

ca

b-ux:-an-s:a

kan-t:u-x

 

Marakan iv-freeze-past:dur

one

iii-go=into-inf-attr

place-pl-post:ess

 

 

lag-l-an

b-i-w-ku-n

b-u-r.

 

 

go-dur-inf

iii-be-iii-$:past-past

iii-be:pres-nsap

 

 

Marakan was freezing [and] wanted to [lit. was to] go to a place (where) it could go into.

 

yala

ga-ni-n

cakunu

ca

cuq

bak'-ra-y-n

then

dist¯-sa[-masc]-dat

at=once

one

hole

head-sa-super-all

 

d-ah-nu

ci-w-u-n

b-u-w-x:u-n

 

 

iv-fall-past

what-iii-do:past-past

iii-go=into-iii-$:past-past

 

 

 

ğurğu

d-u-r-cu-nu

šan-an

b-i-w-k'u-n

b-u-r.

purr

iv-bring=out-iv-$:past-past

sleep:dur-inf

iii-be-iii-$:past- past

iii- be:pres-nsap.

Then, suddenly, it realized a hole (lit.: a hole fell onto [its] head]) what has it done? it went in [and] started to sleep producing a purr.

 

 

 

7. Statistics (usage-based, extracted from text sample)

 

1. Statistics of phonemes:

 

ALL

Total: 1141

 

Initial

Total: 220

 

FINAL

Total: 220

a

190

 

b

58

 

a

55

u

161

 

d

18

 

n

48

n

129

 

a

13

 

u

44

i

102

 

c

13

 

r

24

r

65

 

m

11

 

l

14

l

61

 

q

10

 

i

11

b

55

 

č:

8

 

y

10

w

48

 

n

7

 

x

5

y

31

 

x:

7

 

t

2

d

21

 

w

6

 

2

k

19

 

i

5

 

ğ

1

t:

19

 

q:

5

 

h

1

g

17

 

š

5

 

q

1

m

17

 

t:

5

 

1

q

17

 

č

4

 

w

1

s:

15

 

g

4

 

 

c

14

 

ħ

4

 

 

h

14

 

l

4

 

 

č:

11

 

t

4

 

 

k:

10

 

h

3

 

 

t

10

 

k

3

 

 

x:

10

 

k

3

 

 

q:

8

 

u

3

 

 

x

8

 

c

2

 

 

ä

7

 

ğ

2

 

 

k

7

 

k:

2

 

 

č

6

 

q

2

 

 

c

6

 

t

2

 

 

š

6

 

x$

2

 

 

x$

6

 

y

2

 

 

5

 

č

1

 

 

č

5

 

r

1

 

 

q

5

 

x

1

 

 

t'

5

 

 

z

5

 

 

ž

5

 

 

ğ

4

 

 

ħ

4

 

 

k'

4

 

 

u³

4

 

 

š

2

 

 

1

 

 

s

1

 

 

x$:

1

 

 

 

         1141 phonems in 220 words: 5.18 Phonemes per word

        

                            ALL    Initial  Final

         Vowels:                  308     21      111

         Consonants:  833     199     109 (of them sonants: 97)

 

Compare overall frequency (based on 86524 tokens, usage-based):

 


a

14737

b

2137

č'

653

x.

291

u

8988

m

1916

š

643

š:

267

i

6986

k

1843

t:

531

t'

247

r

6553

s

1428

q

513

x̂:

242

l

6285

č

1414

ö

433

ə

211

n

5839

o

1195

391

ħ

211

y

3371

g

1051

ž

390

q'

189

v

3112

c

897

h

373

ğ

116

d

2658

x

800

k'

329

c'

98

e

2257

z

736

ä

298

f

61

s:

2253

p

726

k:

298

p:

38

t

2231

 

 

q:

296

p'

2

 

 

 

 

 

ALL

 

86534

 

 

 


 

 

2. Morphemes in Text Sample (with frequencies):

 

Morpheme

Function

Frequency

-a, -atu

abl

Ablative

3

-x$

adess

Adessive

1

-nu

adv

Adverbial

6

-x$:un

all (2)

Allative

1

-in, -un , -n

all (1)

Allative

6

-x$

ac

Anticausative

1

-s:

ass

Assertive

2

-s:a

attr

Attributive

13

-w, Ø-

i

Class I

9

b-, -w-, -wa-, -ma

iii

Class III

78

d-, -r-, -ra

iv

Class IV

20

-n

dat

Dative

3

-l, -la

dur

Durative

6

-x, -ux

ess.reg

Essive (region)

4

-l

erg

Ergative

4

-gu

foc

Focus

10

-l

gen

Genitive

7

-ax̂ur

ger:mod

Gerund Modal

1

-i

imp:trans:2sg

Imperative, transitive

1

-w, -wu

in:ess

Inessive

3

-an, -in, -n

inf

Infinitive

14

-q:a-

neg

Negation

4

-r, -ni

nsap

Non-Speech Act Participant

22

-n, -nu, -un

past

Past

37

-iya

past:dur

Past (imperf./durative)

3

-da, -ir, -li, -ra., -ru, -t:u, -w

pl

Plural

14

-wi

pot:nsap

Potential nSAP

1

-x

post:ess

Postessive

1

-ay, -y

pres

Present

8

-na, -ra

sap:sg

Speech Act Participant Sg

4

-i, -li, -lu, -n, -nu, -ra

sa

Stem augment

11

-na

sa[masc]

Stem augment

1

-ni

sa[masc]

Stem augment

3

-iy, -y, -i, -ay

super

Super

19

-y

voc

Vocative

2

SUM

 

 

328

 

         220 tokens with 328 morphemes = 1.49 morphemes per word.

 

[up]

 

 

 

8. Some references [Note: this list is not exhaustive!]

 

Bouda, Karl 1949. Lakkische Studien. Heidelberg: Winter.

Burč’uladze, G. 1987. Lak’uri zmna. Dro-k’ilota sist’ema. Tbilisi: Mecniereba.

Friedman, Victor 1984. Status and the Lak Verbal System. Folia Slavica, Vol. 7, No. 1 2, 1984. 135-149.

Friedman, Victor 1988. On The Question of Pluperfect in Lak. Iberiul kavkasiuri enatmecnierebis celicdeuli (Tbilisi), Vol. 15, 1988. 282-292.

Friedman, Victor 1989. On the Terminology for Lak Synthetic Past Paradigms. The Non Slavic Languages of the USSR: Linguistic Studies. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. 1989. 106-120.

Friedman, Victor 1990. Lak Oral Poetry in Turkey: A Trans National Phenomenon. The Annual of the Society for the Study of Caucasia, Vol. 2, 1990. 13-17.

Friedman, Vicor 1992. Lak Substantival Declension: 40 cases or 50? The Non Slavic Languages of the USSR: Linguistic Studies Second Series. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. 1992. 113-33.

Friedman, Victor, 1994a Ga in Lak and the Three "There-s: Deixis and Markedness in Daghestan. NSL. 7: Linguistic Studies in the Non Slavic Languages of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Baltic Republics, ed. by Howard I. Aronson. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. 1994. 79-93.

Friedman, Victor 1994b. Assertive Verb Forms in Lak. Non Slavic Languages of the USSR: Papers from the Fourth Conference, ed. by Howard Aronson. Columbus: Slavica. 1994. 114-119.

Friedman, Victor 1996. Gender, Class, and Age in the Daghestanian Highlands: Towards a Unified Account of the Morphology of Agreement in Lak. NSL.8: Linguistic Studies in the Non Slavic Languages of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Baltic Republics, ed. by Howard I. Aronson. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. 1996. 187-199.

Friedman, Victor 2003a. Lak Folktales: Materials for a Bilingual Reader: Part Two. Shamsus Dog. Current Trends in Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson, ed. by Dee Ann Holisky and Kevin Tuite. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 2003. 75-83.

Friedman, Victor 2003b. The Expression of Speaker Subjectivity in Lak. LÉnonciation médiatisée 2, ed. by Zlatka Guentchéva. Louvain: Peeters. 2003. 75-83.

Kazenin, Konstantin. 1998. On patient demotion in Lak. In Kulikov and Vater (eds.): Typology of verbal categories: Papers presented to Vladimir Nedjalkov on the occasion of his 70th birthday, pp. 95-116.

Kazenin, Konstantin I. 1999. Ličnoe soglasovanie v lakskom jazyke: markirovannost´ i nejtralizacija. In Ekaterina V. Raxilina & Jakov G. Testelec (eds.). Tipologija i teorija jazyka: Ot opisanija k objasneniju: K 60-letiju Aleksandra Evgen´evica Kibrika. Moscow: Jazyki russkoj kul´tury. 383-399

Murkelinskij, G.B. 1967. Lakskij jazyk. In: JNSSSR IV,488-507 [with bibliography].

Murkelinskij, G.B. 1971. Grammatika laksogo jazyka. Maxachkala.

Ragimov K.R. & A.Sh. Shixaliev 1991. Lakskij jazyk. [School book]. Maxachkala: Dagučpedgiz.

Schiefner, Anton 1866. Bericht über B.v.Uslars kasikumückische Studien. St.Petersburg

Uslar, P. v. 1890. Lakskij yazyk. Etnografija Kavkaza III. Tiflis.

Xaydakov, S.M. 1961. Očerki po leksike lakskogo jazyka. Moskva: Izd. AN SSSR.

Xaydakov, S.M. 1962. Laksko-russkij slovar. Moskva: Gos.Izd. inostr. i nac. slovarej.

Xaydakov, S.M.1966. Očerki po lakskoj dialektologii. Moskva: Nauka.

Žirkov, L.I. 1955. Lakskij jazyk. Moskva: Izd. AN SSSR.

 

-------------------------------

 

Some Links

 

Audio recordings of a Lak tale (+ text and glosses) by Victor Friedman:   http://home.uchicago.edu/%7Evfriedm/courses.html > Number 24600/34600

Ethnologue entry: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lbe

Lak on the internet: http://www.lakia.net/

Lak Forum: http://lakia.fastbb.ru

Lak presentation: http://www.dagens.narod.ru/lak/lakku.htm